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:■ "THOU 
THAT TEACHEST ' 
ANOTHER 
'FEACIiEST THOU NOT 
' THYSELF?" 




LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 



6§np inpiirigy '3^Xii^. 

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UNITJID STATES OF AMERICA. 



|?jc xXarj fl i c a I g i b v a r ij» 

EDITED BY G. STANLEY HALL. 



YOL. I. 



Methods of Teaching Histoey. 



A. D. WiiiTEpW. F. Allen, C. K. Adams, John W. 
Burgess, J. R.^keITeY.'TI. B. Adams, E. Emeu- 
ton, G. S. Moiuus, 11. T." Ely, A. B. 
Hart, W. C. Collar, J. T. Clarke, 
W. E. Foster, and others. 



SECOND EDITION, ENTIRELY RECAST AND REWRITTEN. 



CiCf la jt 
BOSTON : ^/-^^ „..^ 
D. C. HEATH & COMPANY. « ^ / »/ / 
1895. ^ 



1 



:!^r 






CoPTRUiUT, 1883, 
By GINN, heath, & CO, 



Copyright, 1884, 
By GINN, HEATH, & CO. 



OOJ^TEJ^TS. 



PAGE. 

Introduction . v 

By the Editor. 

Methods of Teaching American History 1 

By Dr. A. B. Hart, Harvard University. 

The Practical Method in Higher Historical Instruc 

TION 31 

By Professor Ephraim Emerton, of Harvard University. 

On Methods OF Teaching Political Economy .... 61 

By Dr. Richard T. Ely, Johns Hopkins University. 

Historical Instruction in the Course of History and 
Political Science at Cornell University . . . . 73 

By President Andrew D. White, Cornell University. 

Advice to an Inexperienced Teacher of History ... 77 

By W. C. CoLLAK, A.M., Head Master of Roxbury Latin School. 

A Plea for Arch^ological Instruction 89 

By Joseph Thachbr Clarke, Director of the Assos Expedition. 

The Use of a Public Library in the Study of History . 105 

By William E. Foster, Librarian of the Providence Public Library. 

Special Methods of Historical Study 113 

By Professor Herbert B. Adams, Johns Hopkins University. 

The Philosophy of the State and of History .... 149 

By Prof. George S. Morris, Michigan and Johns Hopkins Universities. 

The Courses of Study in History, Roman Law, and 
Political Economy at Harvard University . . . 167 

By Henrt E. Scott, Harvard University. 



IV CONTENTS. 

PAGE. 

The Teaching of History 193 

By Professor J. R. Seelet, Cambridge University, Eng. 

On Methods of Teaching History 203 

By Professor C. K. Adams, Michigan University. 

On Methods of Historical Study and Research in 
Columbia University 215 

By Professor John W. Buegess, Columbia University. 

Physical Geography and History 223 

Why do Children Dislike History? 227 

By TuoMAS Wentworth Hioginson. 

Gradation and the Topical Method of Historical 

Study 231 

Part I. — Historical Literj\ture and Authorities . . 239 

II. — Books for Collateral Reading 296 

III. — School Text-Books 303 

Supplement 309 

History Topics 323 

By Professor W. P. Allen, Wisconsin University. 

Bibliography of Church History (see special index to this 

article) 337 

By Rev. John Alonzo Fisher, Johns Hopliins University. 



mTRODUOTIOIsr. 



rr^HIS book was intended to he the first of a series entitled 
a Pedagogical Library, devoted to methods of teaching, 
one vohime of which was to be occupied with each of the 
more important branches of instruction in grammar and high 
schools. The design and plan of the work was not to pro- 
duce systematic treatises, and still less to develop anything 
ultimate or absolute in metliod ; but to gather together, in 
the form most likely to be of direct practical utility to 
teachers, and especially students and readers of history, 
generally, the opinions and modes of instruction, actual or 
ideal, of eminent and representative specialists in each 
department. The present volume has been an unremuner- 
ated work of love on the part of each writer, and the appear- 
ance of subsequent volumes in the series is not yet assured. 
It should be added that the articles are printed in the order 
in which they were received by the editor. 

Teachers in whom a methodic interest has been awakened 
will find many useful hints in tlie following ])ooks, pamphlets, 
and articles : — 

Georg Gottfried Gervinus. Grundzuge der Historik. Leipzic, 

1837. pp. 95. 
F. Jacobi. Grundzuge einer neuen IMethode f iir den vaterliindischen 

Geschichtsunterricht in deutschen Sclmlen. Niirnberg, 1839. 



VI INTRODUCTION. 

F. Stiehl. Der vaterliindische Geschichtsunterricht in unseren 
Elementarschvilen . Koblenz, 1842. 

F. W. Miquel. Beitrage eines mit der Herbart'schen Padagogik 
befreiindeten Schulmannes zur Lehre vom biograpliischen 
Geschichtsunterricht auf Gymnasien. Aurich, 1847. 

Lohell. Grundziige einer Methodik des geschichtlichen Unterrichts 

auf Gymnasien. Leipzig, 1847. 
C. Peter. Der Geschichtsunterricht auf Gymnasien. Ein metho- 

discher Versuch. Halle, 1849. 
W. Assman. Das Studium der Geschichte. Braunschweig, 1849. 
H. V. Syhel. Ueber den Stand der neueren deutschen Geschicht- 

schreibung. Mai'burg, 1856. 
J. F. C. Campe. Geschichte und Unterricht in der Geschichte. 

Leipzig, 1859. 
Friedrich Karl Biede.rniann. Der Geschichts-Unterricht in der 

Schule, seine Mangel imd ein Vorschlag zu seiner Reform. 

Braunschweig, 18G0. pp. 45. 

G. Weber. Der Geschichtsunterricht in Mittelschulen. Heidel- 

berg, 1864. 
Ation. Ueber die Nothwendigkeit einer griindlichen Reform des 

Lehrplans fUr den Geschichtsunterricht auf Real- und holieren 

Biirgerschulen. Neuwied, 1870. 
M. Lazarus. Ueber die Ideen in der Geschichte. Berlin, 1872. 
J. G. Droysen. Grundriss der Historik. Leipzig, 1868. pp. 38. 
Rudolph Foss, Realschule Director. Wie ist der Unterricht in der 

Geschichte mit dem Geographischen Unterricht zu verbinden. 

Dargelegt an der Darstellung der Mark Brandenburg. Eine 

Anleitung fUr Lehrer und reiferen Schiilern. Mit Karten. 

Berlin, 1874. pp. 48. 
K. F. Eherliardl. Zur Methode und Technik des Geschichtsunter- 

richts auf den Seminarien. Eisenach, 1874. 
O. A . Grilllich. Beitrag zur Methodik des Geschichtsunterrichtes 

an hbheren Lehranstalten. Lobau, 1874. 
C. Radenhausen. Osiris. Weltgesetze in der Weltgeschichte. 

Hamburg, 1875. 



INTRODUCTION. VH 

F. Muster, Hauptlehrer in Koln. Die Geschichte in der Volkschule; 

eine von der Diesterweg-Stiftung in Berlin pramiirte Concur- 

renzschrift. Koln, 1876. pp. 78. 
F. Krieger. Der Geschichtsunterricht in Volks-, Biirger- und 

Fortbildungsschulen. Eine Anleitung znr richtigen Ertheil- 

ung der Geschichte. NUrnberg, 1876. 
R. Mayr. Die philosophische Geschichtsauffassung der Neuzeit. 

Wien, 1877. 
F. L. W. Herbst, Recter der Kon. Landeschule Pforta. Die Neure 

und Neueste Geschichte aiif Gymnasien. Mainz, 1877. pp. 40. 
Ottokar Lorenz, Wirkl. Mitgleid der K. Akadeniie der Wissen- 

schaften. Friedrich Christopli Schlosser und ueber einige 

Aufgaben und Principien der Geschichtschreibung. Wien, 

1878. pp. 91. 
Clemens Nolil. Ueber die Nothwendigkeit einer griindlichen Reform 

des Lehrplans fUr den Geschichtsunterricht auf Real- und 

hdheren Biirgerschvilen. Neuweid. 
H. Noliaschecl-. Ueber der Geschichts-Unterricht in einer Volk- 
schule von acht Klassen. Ein niethodischer Versuch. Mainz, 

1878, pp. 38. 
F. Jodl. Die Culturgeschichtsschreibung, ihre Entwickelung und 

ihr Problem. Halle, 1878. 
H. Doergens. Grundlinien einer Wissenschaft der Geschichte. 

Leipzig, 1878. 
M. Lazarus. Erziehungund Geschichte. Breslau & Leipzig, 1881. 

pp. 51. 
E. F. Oscar-Jager. Bemerkungen ueber den Geschichtlichen 

Unterricht. Beigabe znr dem "Hilfsbucli fur den ersten 

Unterricht in alten Geschichte." Fiir Lehrer der Geschichte 

an Hbheren Schulen. Wiesbaden, 1882. pp. 47. 
Anon. Wie Studirt Man classische Philologie und Geschichte. 

Leipzic, 1884. 
Maurenhrecher. Geschichte und Politik. 1884. 
Keferstein. Historiches Wissen und historiche Bildung. Ziller's 

pad. Jahrbuch XIII., p. 130, et seq. 



VI 11 INTKODUCTION. 

Zillig. Dei' Geschichtliche Unterricht in den elementai-en Erzie- 

hung Schulen. Ziller's piid. Jahi-buch, XIV., p. 89, et seq. 
K. J. Eherhardt. Ueber Geschichts-Unterricht in Rein's pad. 

Studien. Heft 4. 
E. Blume. Geschichts-Unterricht auf den Seminarien Rein's pad. 

Studien. 
P. Fredericq. De L'enseignement Superieur de I'histoire en Alle- 

magne. Revue de L'instruction publique en Belgique, 1882. 

pp. 18-79 
P. Fredericq. L'enseignement Superieur de I'histoire a Paris. 

Revue Internationale de L'enseignement, 1883. p. 742. 
See also, Alte und neue Ansichten ueber die Ziele des Geschichts- 
Unterrichts. Von F. Noack. " Piidagogische Archiv," 1883, Apr, 6. 
Der Lernstoff in Geschichtlichen Uiiterricht. Von E. Stutzer. Ibid. 
2 Aug. Seiynohos, Revue Internationale, 1881, X., and also in 
Revue, Internationale de L'enseigneriient, Tome I., p. 565, and 
Aug., 1884. Krauth's, Revue d'instruction publique en Belgique, 
XIX. The Study of History, its Lets and Hindrances, hy E. A. 
Freeman, 1879. See also his recent inaugural address at Oxford, 
both of which are, however, little but reiterations of his theory of 
the unity, through Roman institutions, of Ancient and Modern 
history. 

In America nothing has heretofore been published of such 
vakie as "Methods of Historical Study," by Dr. H. B. 
Adams, in the Johns Hopkins University Studies, in "His- 
torical and Political Science," which he edits. Baltimore, 
1884. pp. 136. Also C. K. Adams's "Manual of Historical 
Study." The former work is in part Dr. Adams's contri- 
bution to the present volume. See, too, Mr. Atkinson's 
lectures on " Historj^ and the Study of History." For 
teachers of the young Adams's Historical Chart, and for all 
Tillinghast's translation of Ploetz's "Epitome of Ancient, 
Mediaeval, and Modern History," Boston, 1884, will be use- 



INTKODUCTIOK. IX 

fill. Also, "Instruction in History," bj' Dr. G. Diesterweg, 
printed in the first edition of this book, but omitted and now 
published separately. Boston, 1884. 

Man}' of the systematic German treatises on pedagogy 
also contain suggestive chapters or sections devoted to the 
didactics of histor}- ; of these, Kehr and Schrader may be 
mentioned as representatives. 

History was chosen for the subject of the first volume of 
this educational library because, after much observation in 
the schoolrooms of many of the larger cities in the eastern 
part of our country, the editor, without having a hobby 
about its relative importance or being in any sense an expert 
in history, is convinced that no subject so widely taught is, 
on the whole, taught so poorly. 

Most text-books now in use are dry compilations, and yet 
are far more closely adhered to than even the best should 
be in this department. Teachers of history generally give 
instruction also in several other often unrelated branches ; 
and, worst of all perhaps, history is crowded into a single 
term or year. Two radical changes, which have long since 
been found practicable in schools of coiTesponding grades in 
Germany, are greatly needed here. P^irst, there should be in 
all the larger towns special teachers, who should go from 
room to room, or from one schoolhouse to another, and give 
instruction in history alone. They might qualify and be ex- 
amined in higher and higher grades of work, and this would 
tend to give to their vocation a professional spirit and char- 
acter. It is not impossible that, eventually thus, the way into 



X INTEODFCTION. 

the professors' chairs in our colleges and universities might 
be as open to teachers here, who have worked their way up 
through such an apprenticeship, as it is in German y. The 
teachei-'s mind must be kept saturated with its spirit, stored 
with copious illustrations of its varied lessons, by wide and 
diligent reading, or history cannot be taught effectively to 
the young. The high educational value of history is too 
great to be left to teachers who merely hear recitations, keep- 
ing the finger on the place in the text-book, and only asking 
the questions conveniently printed for them in the margin or 
back of the book, — teachers, too, who know that their 
present method is a good illustration of how history ought 
not to be taught, and who would do better if opportunity 
were afforded them. Nowhere is so much of the time spent 
on text-books by pupils lost on school artifacts, mistaken 
for perplexities inherent in the subject itself. When we 
reflect that what men think of the world depends on what 
they know of it, it is not surprising that the wider altruistic 
and ethical interests, which it is a special function of history 
to develop, rarely become strong enough. to control narrower 
and more isolated and selfish aims in life. 

Secondly, the time devoted to historical study in the pub- 
lic schools should be increased. So slow is historical com- 
prehension, and so independent of all cram- work, that even 
the time now given to history would probably be more advan- 
tageously used if distributed over more months or years, by 
devoting to it a correspondingly less number of hours per 
week ; though this could not be said of most studies, and is 



INTEODUCTION. Xl 

not true of the examinable elements in this. We have not 
yet in this country considered the problem of adapting his- 
torical material to the earlier phases of the development of 
the childish mind from the first years of school life, as Ziller 
and his pupils, especially Rein, Pickel, and Scheller, have 
done in their recent Pddagogische Studien. The child's love 
of stories, they hold, is the earliest manifestation of historic 
interest, and should be developed by systematic story-telling, 
which, since the much-lauded invention of Herr Giittenburg, 
has become a lost art. So important is this art, that normal 
schools should give special training in it, and it should be 
made, with respect to young classes, the culmination of 
pedagogic skill. These writers have selected and arranged 
twelve of Grimm's tales, and would bring nearly the whole 
work of school the first year about these, upon the principle 
of the well-known concentration method of the late Professor 
Ziller. They are to be told and retold, and then reproduced 
by the children item b}' item, and moral and religious senti- 
ments, as well as all manner of material information and 
illustrative object-lessons, made to centre about them. The 
next year connected stories from Robinson Crusoe are treated 
in the same way, till the child comes to almost identify itself 
with the hero, and repeat with him the slow progress, not 
unlike that of the race, from destitution to comfort and com- 
parative civilization by the use of powers which every child 
feels itself possessed of and as competent as Robinson to 
put forth under like circumstances for his own amelioration. 
Later select tales from the Old Testament are made the focal 



xii IKTRODUCTIOK. 

points of the school work. Thus the unity of the child's 
mind is secured from distracting special studies, which with 
advancing school years become more and more independent 
and isolated. Selections from the Odyssey, the Norse sagas, 
tales from Shakespeare, Herodotus, Livy, Xenophon, etc., 
follow, — all stimulating the historical sense, and creating 
centres of interest before technical instruction in history 
begins. 

A teacher who has a prescribed period of history in which 
to qualify pupils in a given time should elect a method with 
the greatest care. For certain periods and for certain ages 
it may be best to group all the material al)out the biographies 
of eminent men ; for others, about important liattles ; while 
a purely pragmatic narrative may again be most effective. 
With somewhat older children, the investigating method, 
which follows the order and describes the process of search 
and discovery of historic facts ; or the discussive method, 
which applies a body of historic material to the determina- 
tion or elucidation of a problem of the present ; or the other 
presentative methods which Droysen has enumerated, may 
have peculiar pedagogic merit. No rules can be laid down 
here or anywhere in pedagogy to he followed blindly. What 
is essential is that the teacher shall know and ponder many 
good methods, so that he may have a wide repertory of 
means from which to choose the best for the attainment of 
his ends. 

A purely colorless presentation of facts, such as used to 
be postulated, is clearly impossible for the average teacher. 



INTRODUCTION. XUl 

and, could it be secured, would rob his iustruction of most of 
its value and interest, — aud 3'et it is the safest of all ideals. 
Teachers of the grades here contemplated seem just now 
peculiarly liable to hobbies which sometimes actually deform 
the pupil's historic sense, and illustrate the danger of great 
ideas to minds not well disciplined for them. Some who 
have very lately caught the national idea of Freeman, Stubbs, 
etc. , do scanty justice to Norman influence in English his- 
tory. Others, who have realized the pregnant sense in which 
"history is past politics," forget the other sense in which 
the history of the world has been at nearly every point 
very different from the history of the conscious purposes 
of the leaders in its movements, and that " while men 
thought they were doing this thing by these means, it was 
later seen that they were really doing quite other things 
by very different means." Physical geography, as impor- 
tant perhaps for a correct understanding of historic events 
as some knowledge of the senses and the brain is for 
mental science, is very apt to be too much neglected or, 
though far more rarely, to be made too prominent. History, 
a wise teacher has said in substance, is neither a theophany, 
or a series of special providences, nor a play of absolute 
ideas on the one hand, nor the product of material necessity 
on the other. This dualism is not normal, and a true peda- 
gogy, like a true philosophy of history, will tend to reconcile 
and not to emphasize it. If a teacher feels the need of a 
philosophy of history as a background for his methods and 
as a safeguard against one-sidedness, he will hardly find a 



XIV INTRODUCTION. 

saner one than in the chapters of the third volume of Lotze's 
Microcosm, which opens up a broad and safe middle way 
between extremes, like those of Hegel and Helwald ; but 
let him remember that philosophic ideas, while they may 
often enliven historic work, are dangerous if premature, and 
should be made centres of historic interest only quite late in 
the pupil's mental development. 

The liberality of the publishers has made it possible to 
eliminate from the second about half the material of the first 
edition and to substitute new matter to an extent which 
somewhat enlarges the volume, and of a kind which it is 
believed so increases its value and utility that readers of 
the old edition will find this essentially a new work. If the 
methods detailed in the first edition were mainly for advanced 
liistorical training, or for teaching " not so much history, as 
how to study history," the present collection of essays will, 
it is hoped, prove of service to teachers of all grades. 

G. STANLEY HALL. 

Johns Hopkins University, Dec. 16, 1884. 



Methods of Teaching American History. 



By Dr. A. B. Hakt, Harvard University. 



CONSIDERING the thought which has been devoted to 
the deduction of general principles, applicable to history? 
as a science, wherever taught, it seems almost presuming to 
assume that there are any peculiar methods of teaching 
American history. It is always well, however, to test 
principles by finding out whether they ma}' be adapted to 
a particular case ; and if any history meets with special 
difficulties, and needs a special treatment, it is that of our 
own country. 

In the first place, it is almost always the first, and often 
the last, branch of the subject to be pursued at all. In the 
second place, there exists not only a negative ignorance as 
to the facts on which it is leased, but too often a positive 
misinformation, — a structure to be pulled down before one 
can begin to build. It is only necessary to turn to the Con- 
gressional Globe, or to the columns of a newspaper, to find 
out that public men know a great many things about the 
history of the United States which never happened. Where 
there is good will to learn the truth, there is usually an un- 
trained helplessness about using books. Where there is 
discrimination, and a readiness to choose the best, there 
is a lack of trustworthy authorities in compact form. The 
luminous brief histories with which the Germans abound 
simply do not exist in America. After 1820, there is no 
narrative history which can be used as a college text-book ; 
and, till Von Hoist wrote, there was no critical history 
whatever. 



2 METHODS OF TEACHING 

Yet no country can boast of a richer or more instructive 
past : it is full of interesting detail ; it has, in the slaver}^ 
contest, the most dramatic episode of the century ; it abounds 
in questions which have nowhere else been worked out ; no 
other government ever had more revenue than it could spend ; 
no other country ever disposed of the soil of half a continent ; 
no other people ever successfully developed a strong federa- 
tion. To Americans the great questions of national policy 
are of peculiar interest, because capable of personal associa- 
tion. To give an example : one of the students at Harvard, 
who is writing a thesis on the fugitive slave law, has gone 
for information to a man who had been tried under that law 
before the student's father. Thus American history has, at 
home, a presumption in its favor. It is important not only 
to the American, but for any student of political science. 
It appeals to that practical side of the American character, 
which is likely to prefer a subject which has an evident use 
be3'ond collegiate life. Finally, the authorities are easy to 
find, wherever there is a library ; and there is no lack of 
interesting questions waiting for investigators. 

American history will, therefore, be studied more than 
other history ; it is not learned without study ; it is worth 
studying for itself ; it appeals to Americans ; and the materials 
are at hand. The next question is, How shall it be studied? 
The question naturally divides itself into a discussion of 
general principles, arrangement and division, purpose, point 
of view, manner of instruction, helps to the student, and 
tests. 

First of all, it is necessary to lay down certain fundamental 
principles in such form as to leave them sharply defined in 
the minds of the students. They may be so framed as to 
correct a few of the more dangerous popular errors about 
the real relations of the United States to other countries. 



AMERICAN HISTORY. 3 

It might be well to draw up and print some such list as the 
following : — 

Fundamental Principles of American History. 

1. No nation has a history disconnected from that of the rest 
of the world : tlie United States is closely related, in point of 
time, with previous ages ; in point of space, with other civilized 
comitries. 

2. Institutions are a growth, and not a creation : the Consti- 
tution of the United States itself is constantly changing with the 
changes in public opinion. 

3. Our institutions are Teutonic in origin : they have come to 
us through English institutions. 

4. The growth of our institutions has been from local to 
central : the general government can, therefore, be understood 
only in the light of the early history of the country. 

5. The principle of union is of slow growth in America : the 
Constitution was formed from necessity, and not from prefei'ence. 

6. Under a federal form of government there must inevitably 
be a perpetual contest of authority between the States and the 
general government : hence the two opposing doctrines of States- 
rights and of nationality. 

7. National political parties naturally appeal to the federal 
principle when in power, and to the local principle when out of 
power. 

8. When parties become distinctly sectional, a trial of strength 
between a part of the States and the general government must 
come sooner or later. 

To descend from the abstract to the concrete, perhaps no 
better way can be found for suggesting a method for the 
study of American history than to describe the methods 
actually in use in Harvard College. It is to be borne in 
mind that the system is still incomplete and imperfect, and 
that a part only of the devices to be enumerated have been 
put into operation. 



4 METHODS OF TEACHING 

Beginning with 1884, two fnll courses, ench consisting of 
three lectures a, week, will be given. Together they are to 
cover tlie whole period from the earliest settlements to tlie 
Civil War ; although intended to form a systematic wliole, 
each is to be complete in itself. The first course (1600-1789) 
is intended for a small number of students, and will be sug- 
gestive rather than didactic. The point of view will be : 
first, the origin of our local institutions ; and, later on, the 
nature of the Constitution, as illustrated by the preceding 
history of the United Colonics and United States. The 
second course (1789-18G1) is one of the larger electives in 
college ; what follows may be considered as applying more 
particularly to this course, — the history of the United States 
under the Constitution. 

From 1775 down, a course on American history ought to be 
primarily for instruction. If human nature were otherwise, 
if the fitting schools gave a different preparation, another 
method might be followed. As it is, few students know 
an3-thing positive about institutions ; how should they, with- 
out any good elementary text-books ? Our political treatises 
and speeches show the lack of knowledge, and the danger of 
generalizing without it. Van Buren's "Political Parties" 
is an example of a book which thus assumes history- instead 
of teaching it. On the other hand, it is quite as undesirable 
for the student to accept, the instructor's generalizations 
read^-made. With bright students it is perfectly possible, 
after putting clearly before them the facts and the deductions 
of both sides, to extract from them an independent judg- 
ment. They maybe required to read specific references, and 
then to submit, in brief form, a written opinion embodying 
their own conclusions. It is, of course, essential not to turn 
the lecture-room into a primary meeting by discussing politi- 
cal parties as they now exist. Part of the duty of the 



AMERICAN HISTORY. & 

instructor is to point out the evils in our political S3'stem ; 
but having once based his deduction on ascertained facts, 
he may safely leave the application to the student. The sug- 
gestive method is not to be left out of sight ; but suggestions 
must follow and not precede knowledge. In the present 
state of the preparatory schools, the present want of text- 
books, the present superficiality of more general works, the 
present mass of ill-digested material, if the instructor does 
not himself supply accurate and detailed information, his 
students will not have it. 

AYith all the restrictions thus laid upon him, it is still 
possible for the instructor to select a point of view which 
will oblige his students to think, and to see the relation of 
one part of histor}- to another ; it is, the comparison of the 
past with the present. No history is better adapted to the 
method than our own ; no treatment lends more life to a 
course, or appeals more strongly to young minds. The con- 
nection between a subject under discussion, and the same 
subject in our present system, is alwa^'S useful in itself and 
fructifying to the mind. To give a specific instance : After 
a lecture on Jackson's removals, and the effect of the system 
thus introduced, the students were last 3'ear required to 
submit a written suggestion for a remedy. The results were 
crude, but thoughtful, and in some cases shrewd and far- 
seeing. Care should be taken, however, to preserve the 
consistency of the course ; it is a mistake to work from the 
present backward. If each topic, as it comes up in its logical 
order, is sketched out clear to its present status, the con- 
nection of events with each other need not be broken. 

The only practicable form of instruction at Harvard seems 
to be that of lectures. The classes are too large for recita- 
tions, even did proper text-books exist. In lectures alone 
can the instructor arrange the proportions of the course him- 



6 METHODS OF TEACHING 

self. In connection with lectures the student mu}' be led to 
use man}' books, instead of two or three, or half a dozen. 
The lectures are all, or nearly all, delivered by the instructor ; 
it is oul}' in rare cases that a student may have looked up a 
subject in such detail that he can profitabl}' lecture (not read 
a thesis) before the class. The method, in a word, is the 
topical. The precise scope of the course for the year 1883-84 
may be seen by the following : — 

Topics for a Course of Eighty-six Lectures on the Politi- 
cal AND Constitutional History of the United States.^ 

1. Introductory. — Methods of the course. Suggestions on note- 
taking and on lial>its of study. 

2. Preliminary Conceptions. — AVliat is history ? What is a 
Constitution ? What is the United States? 

3. Authorities. — Official publications. Legal. Newspapers. 
Biographies. Works of statesmen. Constitutional treaties. Gen- 
eral liistories. 

4. Constitution of England at the outbreak of the Revolu- 
tion. Theoretical. Actual. Conventional: Esprit des Lois, xi., 
chaps, i.-vi. Institutions of the United States derived from Eng- 
land. 

5. The Colonies. — Government by England. Local govern- 
ment. Application of English law. The issue in the Revolution. 

6. Union of the Colonies. — Early schemes. 

7. Colonial Union accomplished. — Difficulties in 1775. Rea- 
sons in 1775. Origin of the revolutionary government. Sovereign 
powers exercised. Limitations. 

S.Independence. — Early suggestions. Preparatory steps. Nar 
ture and bearing. New State governments. Union older than the 
States. 

1 The list is condensed from the "Outline" printed by the class in 
1883-84 ; only those required references appear which are appended to the 
main heads of the lectures ; there are many others in the original. The 
course for 1884-85 begins later, and comes ten years further down. 



AMERICAN HISTORY. i 

9. The Confederation. — Formation. Powers. Defects : Story, 
§265. 

10. Conflicts of the Confederation. — Theories of power over 
States. Attempts to assert authority. Violations by States. Vio- 
lations by Congress. 

11. "Weakness of the States. — In their relations to the people. 
In the relations of people to the States. 

12. Proposed Amendment of the Articles of Confederation. 

— By grants of particular powers. By grants of coercive power. 
By change in the form of the government. 

13. The Constitutional Convention. — Call. Preliminaries. 
Task. Parties. Sources. Propositions. Development of action on 
individuals. 

14. Scope of the Constitution. — Questions settled. Questions 
unsettled. Questions imperfectly settled. 

15. Origin and Nature of the Constitution. — Ratification. 
" Who made the Constitution ? " " What is the Constitution ? " 

16. The United States in 1789. — Geography, — social, eco- 
nomic, political. Origin of parties. 

17. Organization of the Government. — Expiration of the 
Confederation : /. C, xiii. 170. Elections : McMaster, i. .525-32 ; 
Schoule?; i. 70-73, 82-85. Congress : Snow, 13-14. The executive : 
Snoiv,W-17. The judiciary : Snow, 17-18. 

18. Early Constitutional Questions. — Oath. Citizenship. 
Amendments. Indians. Territories. 

19. Acts for putting into Effect Clauses of the Constitution. 

— Revenue : McMaster, i. 544, 55 ; Schoulei; i. 86-93, 187. Naviga- 
tion and commerce. 

20. Same, continued. — Defence and preservation of order. 
General welfare of the United States. 

21. Questions relating to the States. — Assumption and capi- 
tal : McMaster, i. .574-8.5 ; Von Hoist, i. 80-89. Apportionment: 
Hildreth, iv. 303 ; Schouler, i. 188-89. 

22. Same, continued. — Slavery : Von Hoist, i. 272-309. Fugi- 
tive slaves : Von Hoist, i. 309-15. New States : Hildreth, iv. 147, 
209, 268, 326. Suits against States : Schmder, i. 273-74. 

23. Constitutional Questions of National Policy. — Protec- 



8 METHODS OF TEACHING 

tion: Hildreth, iv. 65-76; Schouler, i. 87-90. National bank: 
Schoiiler, i. 159-62; Snoio, 24-27; Stor)j, §§ 1231-06. 

24. Washington's First Administration. — Appointments : 
Schouler, i. 93, 107-9. Washington's character and policy : Von 
Hoist, II. 80-83. Quarrels in the cabinet : Morse's Jeff., 96-145 ; 
Lodge's Ham., 140-48. Investigation of Hamilton : Lodge, 148-52 ; 
Schouler, i. 175, 216-20. 

25. Foreign Relations : France and England. — Neutrality 
question: Von Hoist, i. 106-12; Lodge's Ham., 153-06. Complica- 
tions with France : Schouler, i. 246-55, and Lodge, 100-75 ; Morse's 
Jeff., 146-65, and Von Hoist, i. 113-18. Complication with Eng- 
land : Hildreth, iv. 440-43. Preparations for war : Schouler, 
I. 266-73 ; Lodge, 175-80. 

26. Whiskey Rebellion. — Causes: Adams's Gallatin, 80-93. 
Constitutional question of coercion. Suppression. Effects. 

27. Jay Treaty. Legislation. Election. — Conclusion of a 
treaty with England : Von Hoist, i. 122-28 ; Schouler, i. 308-18. 
General legislation. Retirement of Washington : Schoider, i. 327- 
31 ; Von Hoist, i. 32-37. 

28. Foreign Affairs : Spain and France. — Relations with 
Spain : Hildreth, iv. 13-1-30, 509 ; v. 238-39. X. Y. Z. affair : Gil- 
man's Monroe, 44-68 ; Schouler, i. 317-26, 345-51, 374-91. 

29. Alien and Sedition Acts. — Third naturalization act : 
Schouler, i. 393; Hildreth, v. 213-14, 216. Alien Act: Story, 
§§ 1293-94; Schoider, i. 394-99. Alien Enemies Act. Sedition 
Act: Schouler, i. 396-404; Von Hoist, i. 141-43; Hildreth, v. 
225-32. Application of the acts : Schoider, i. 420-21, 448-50 ; 
Hildreth, V. 247-50, 352, 305, 308. 

30. Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions. History. — Origin. 
Kentucky Resolutions : Von Hoist, i. 143-45 ; Hildreth, v. 272-70 ; 
Jeff., XI. 404-09. Virginia Resolutions : Schoider, i. 422-24 ; Hil- 
dreth, V. 270-77. Action of other States: Hildreth, v. 296-97. 
Second Kentucky Resolutions : Hildreth, v. 319-20. Madison's 
Report : Hildreth, V. 319-21 ; Von Hoist, i. 147. Was forcible 
resistance intended? Von Hoist, i. 156-58. 

31. The Supreme Arbiter. — Necessity of some final tribimal. 
Distinction between judicial and political cases. Controversies 



AMERICAN HISTORY. « 

between departments of the general government. Controversies 
between citizens. Controversies to which States are parties. 

32. Interposition as a Remedy for Usurpation. — Other 
remedies. Interposition as a remedy : Von llulst, i. 150-G9 ; Madi- 
son, IV. 95-106. 

33. Fall of the Federal Party. — Unpopnlarity of the admin- 
istration. Unpopularity of Congress : Hildreth, v. 414. Dissen- 
sions within the party : Lodge's Ham., 188-236 ; Schouler, i. 46()- 
75. Election of 1801: Lodge, 194-201; Von Hoist, i. 168-78. 
Triumph over federal principles : Von Hoist, i. 178-83 ; Hildreth, 
V. 415-18. 

34. Policy of the Republican Party. — Administrative : 
Snow, 69-76; Cook's Notes, 148-62; Schouler, ii. 2-15. Legisla- 
tive : Snow, 76-79 ; Cook's Notes, 163-68 ; Schouler, ii. 15-26. 
Tripolitan war: Cook's Notes, 167-68; Schouler, ii. 16-18. 

35. The Public Lands. — Jurisdiction before the Revolution: 
H. B. Ailoms, in MargUaiil Historical Society Fund Puhlication, No. 
11; Blunt' s Historical Sketch. Question of national jurisdiction. 
Administration before 1789. Alienation before 1789. Land sys- 
tem of the United States. 

36. The Louisiana Annexation. — Previous changes of owner- 
ship : Morse's .Tcff., 2;>l-39. Negotiations : Morse's Jeff., 239-46 ; 
Gilmans Monroe, 74-85; Schotder, ii. 37-51; Adams's Ra7idol.ph, 
75-81. Treaty of cession completed: Oilman's Monroe, 85-93; 
Stevens's Gallatin, 201-2. Constitutionality of the treaty : Stoi-y, 
§§ 1277-83. 

37. "New England Plot of 1803-4." — Early suggestions of 
separation. Causes of dissatisfaction. Evidences of a "plot": 
Adams's New England Federalism; Von Hoist, i. 193-95. Effect 
of the " plot " : Von Hoist, i. 197-99. 

38. Republican Legislation and Administration. — Impeach- 
ment of the judges : Hildreth, v. 511-12, 540-44; Adams's Randolph, 
131-53. Election of 1804: Schouler, ii. 59, 66; Morse's Jeff., 
268-71. The Territories. Finance and defence : Adams's Gallatin, 
348-49, 352-55. Internal improvements : Stevens's Gallatin, 300 ; 
Adams's Gallatin, 352-.54. 



10 METHODS OF TEACHING 

39. Burr's Conspiracy. — Burr's plans: Hildreth, v. 594-603; 
RandalVs Jeff., iii. 173-78. The expedition : Hildreth, v. 603-24 ; 
Randall's Jeff., ill. 179-86. Habeas corpus cases : Hildreth, v. 
612-13 ; RandalVs Jeff., in. 194-98. Prosecution for treason : Hil- 
dreth, V. 668-73 ; Story, §§ 1790-97. Enforcement Act. 

40. Neutral Trade and the Embargo. — Foreign aggression : 
Hildreth, V. 646-49; Schouler, n. 151-56. Jefferson's j)olicy: 
Hildreth, y. 653-65, 674-86; Schouler, n. 133-51. The embargo: 
Schouler, n. 156-65; Hildreth, vi. 35-44. 

41. Failure of Jefferson's Policy. — Enforcement: Schouler, 
II. 185-94; Hildreth, vi. 108-24; Von Hoist, i. 209-13. Repeal: 
Morse's Jeff., 310-20; Schoider, ii. 194-98; Hildreth, vi. 124-36; 
Von Hoist, 1. 214-25. Result of Jefferson's administration : 
Schouler, ii. 198-204; Hildreth, vi. 138-43. 

42. Madison's First Term. — General policy : Schouler, n. 270- 
81; Sterens's Gallatin, 305-11. Foreign relations. Impending 
war : Von Hoist, i. 225-30. 

43. Review of the First Half Year. 

44. War of 1812. — Preliminaries : Von Hoist, i. 226-30 ; Snow, 
100-103 ; Von Hoist's Calhoun, 12-26 ; Schouler, ii. 345-47. Decla^ 
ration of war : Von Hoist, i. 230-42 ; Schouler, ii. 348-56. Progress : 
Snow, 103-108 ; Schouler, ii. 356-75 ; Roosevelt. The militia ques- 
tion : Dwight, 233-57 ; Story, §§ 1204-10. 

45. "War of 1812. — Unpopularity in New England : Von Hoist, 
I. 243-54. Hartford convention: Von Hoist, i. 254-72; Adams's 
New England Federalism, 245. Close of the war : Schouler, ii. 
402-19, 438-44; Hildreth, vi. 545-66. Martial law: North Ameri- 
can Revietv, xciii. 486, 501-504. 

46. End of the War of 1812. — Peace of Ghent: Schoider, ii. 
431-38. Results of the war: Von Hoist, i. 273-77. The bank: 
Snow, 109-10, 124-25 ; Bolles's Financial History, ii. 278-82, 317- 
29; Sumner's American Currency, 68-79; Von Hoist, i. 382-88. 

47. Monroe's Administration. Internal Policy. — " Era of 
good feeling : " Schouler, ii. 458-63 ; Gilman's Monroe, 12.5-40. 
Tariff of 1816 : Snow, 118-24 ; Von Hoist, i. 396-400 ; Bolles, ii. 
359-74 {Protectionist view). Internal improvements. Constitu- 
tional question : Von Hoist, i. 388-96. 



AMERICAN HISTORY. 11 

48. Relations with Spain. — West Florida question : Hildreth, 
VI. 223-28, 310. East Florida question : Sumner's Jackson, 49-72. 
Texas question : Von Hoist, ii. .548-58. 

49. Slavery (1789-1820). Remedies. — Emancipation : 
Goodell's Slavery and Anti-Slavery; Von Hoist, i. 273-300. Colo- 
nization : Von Hoist, I. 329-33. Abolition. 

50. Regulation of Slavery. — Von Hoist, i. 302-39. Slave- 
trade: Von Hoist, I. 315-28. Growth of slavery. Fugitive 
slaves : Von Hoist, i. 310-15. Petitions. Territories. 

51. The Missouri Question. — Rivalry of North and South: 
Von Hoist, I. 340-56. Status of Missouri. Arkansas Territorial 
Act : Von Hoist, i. 372-74. First Missouri debate. 

52. Missouri Compromise. — Second debate, Hildreth, vi. 682- 
98. The compromise : Von Hoist, i. 370-81 ; Benton's View, i. 5. 

\ Nature and effect of the compromise : Adams's Memoirs, v. 3-13 ; 
I Benton, i. 8-10. The Missouri Constitution: Hildreth, vi. 703, 
706-12. 

53. Constitutional Decisions. — McCullough v. Maryland : 
Marshall, 160-87 ; Van Santvoord's Chief Justices, 459-65. Dart- 
mouth College case : Marshall, 188-220 ; Van Santvoord's Chief 
Justices, 450-55. Cohens v. Virginia : Marshall, 221-61 ; Van 
Santvoord's Chief Justices, 466-69. Effect of the decisious. 

54. American Policy of European States. — Colonies. Revolt 
of the Spanish Colonies. Schemes of foreign intervention. 

55. Monroe Doctrine. Occasion. — Einopean intervention in 
Spain. English proposition for joint declaration. Plan of a 
European Congress. Cuban question. Republican spirit. Rus- 
sian complications. Traditional foreign policy of the United 
States : Oilman's Monroe, 162-66. 

56. Monroe Doctrine. Enunciation. — Preliminary discus- 
sion: Gilman's Monroe, 167-74. The declaration: Oilman's Mon- 
roe, 156-62; Von Hoist, i. 419-21. Effect of the declaration. 
Exposition of the declaration. Historical development. 

57. Tariff, and Election of 1824. — Tariff : Von Hoist, i. 396- 
404. The election: Von Hoist, n. l-O. 

58. Adams's Administration. Opposition. — Opposition formed: 
Sargent, Public Men and Events, 106-14. Panama mission : Von 



12 METHODS OF TEACHING 

Hoist, I. 409-33. Amendment for Presidential elections : Benton, 
I. 37, 78-80. Attempt to control patronage: Benton, i. 80-87. 
Anti-Masonic party. Attack on the expenditures. General inter- 
nal policy of Adams: Morse's Adams, 199-213. 

.59. Creek Controversy. — Early difficulties. Negotiations with 
the Creeks : Von Hoist, i. 433-35. Controversy about the survey : 
Von Hoist, I. 435-43 ; Benton, i. 58-60. Second controversy : Von 
Hoist, I. 444-48. 

60. Accession of Jackson. — Tariff of 1828 : Von Hoist, 
I. 459-63. Election of Jackson: Sumner, 114-18. Jackson's 
policy : Von Hoist, ii. 9-12. Internal events of Jackson's first 
administration : Sumner, 139-63 ; Von Hoist, ii. 27-31. 

61. Removals. Internal Improvements. Public Lands. — 
Removals : Von Hoist, ii. 13-27. Internal improvements : Sumner's 
Jackson, 191-94 ; Von Hoist, i. 389-96. Public lands : Sumner's 
Jackson, 109, 184-91. 

62. Cherokee Controversy. — Origin of the difficulty : Sumner, 
49, 179. Conflict with Georgia : Von Hoist, i. 448-49. Georgian 
encroachments permitted: (Swrnner, 180-81 ; Von i7oZ.s7, i. 449-51. 
Conflict with the supreme court : Von Hoist, i. 452-58. 

63. The Bank Controversy. — History of the bank : Sumner's 
Jackson, 224-36. Hostility of Jackson : Von Hoist, ii. 31-36 ; 
Sumner's Jackson, 236-44 ; Benton, i. 229-29. Struggle for a char- 
ter : Von Hoist, II. 36-43; Sumner's Jackson, 244-49, 258-74. 
Jackson's veto : Von Hoist, ii. 43-55 ; Sumner's Jackson, 274-75. 

64. Distribution. — Dickersou's distribution bills. Proceeds of 
public lands scheme. Clay's distribution bill : Benton, i. 275-78. 
Clay's bill revived : Benton, i. 362. Pocket veto : Benton, i. 365-69. 
Calhoun's scheme : Von Hoist, ii. 187-88. Constitutional question. 

65. The Nullification Movement. — Precedents : Sumner's Jack- 
son, 212-16. Agitation by Calhoun : Von Hoist, i. 459-75 ; Sumner's 
Jackson, 216-22. Tariff of 1832 : Von Hoist, i. 471 ; Sumner's . a^k- 
son, 222. Action of South Carolina: Von Hoist, i. 475-77. Action 
of the Executive of the United States. 

66. Nullification Crisis and Discussion (1832-33). — IssMe 
joined. Is nullification constitutional? Fo« //o/.s7, i. 465-75. 

67. Nullification. Force Bill and Compromise. — Principle 



AMERICAN HISTOliY. 13 

of Coercion. The Force Bill : Vo7i Hoist, i. 484-90 ; Sumner, 285-87. 
The compromise : Voti Hoist, i. 490-92, id7 -501. The settlement: 
Von Hoist, I. 501-50o ; Sumner, 288-90. 

68. The Deposits. — Attack on the bank renewed: Benton, 

I. 86-89, 294-96; Sumner's Jackson, 291-94. "Removal of the 
deposits": Von Hoist, n. 51-55; Sumner's Jackso7i, 294:-S09. Con- 
stitutionality of the removal: Story, Life and Letters, ii. 155-58; 
Von Hoist, II. 55-68. 

69. Censure and Protest. — Censure of the President : Sumnei-'s 
Jackson, 309-11. Jackson's protest: Sumner, 311 ; Von Hoist, ii. 70- 
76. Expunging resolutions : Sumner, 313-14 ; Von Hoist, ii. 68-70. 
Bank controversy continued: Sumner, 309, 310, 312, 314-21. 

70. Anti-Slavery Agitation. — Agitation in the North : Von 
Hols f, u. S0-S7. Opposition in the Xorth: Von Hoist, u. 97-110. 
Opposition in the South : Voti Hoist, u. 110-121. The mails : Von 
Hoist, II. 121-36. Petitions. 

71. Finances and Deposit. — Banks and currency. Deposit 
act. French indemnity. 

72. Texas. — Boundaries: Von Hoist, ii. 548-51. Importance 
to slavery: Von Hoist, ii. 551-58, .569. Independence: Von Hoist, 

II. 558-85. Recognition by the United States : Von Hoist, u. 585-88. 

73. End of the "Reign of Jackson." — Judiciary in Jackson's 
administration. Election of 1836. Jackson's influence: Sumner's 
Jackso7i, 277-80, 385-86. 

74. Van Buren's Administration. — Character and policy: 
Von Hoist, II. 147-72. Panic of 1837. Public Funds. Caroline 
affaii- : Lodj/e's Wehslei; 247-49, 252, 255. 

75. The Whigs and Tyler.— Election of 1840 : Von Hoist, n. 360- 
405. Harrison's policy : Von Hoist, ii. 406-12. Tyler and the bank : 
Von Hoist, II. 412-26. Breach with Tyler : Von Hoist, u. 426-39. 
Finances : Von Hoist, ii. 440-51. Tariff of 1842 : Von Hoist, ii. 451-64. 

76. North-Eastern Boundary. — The dispute. Negotiations. 
Northern boundary. Treaty of Washington : Lodge's Webster, 253-60. 

77. Slavery : International and Interstate Statiis. — Legal 
aspect of slavery. Restriction of the slave-trade. International 
status of slaves in tlie United States. International status of 
slaves (_)n the high seas. Interstate status of slavery. 



14 METHODS OF TEACHING 

78. Polk's Election and Administration. — Election of 1844. 
Polk's internal administration. Tariff of 1846 : Von Hoist, iii. 
276-81. 

79. North-western Boundary. — Conflicting claims : Von Hoist, 
III. 29-3G, 30-40. Joint occupation with Great Britain : Von Hoist, 
III. 36-44 ; Barrows, 67-76. American settlements established : Von 
//o/s/, III. 44-53. " Fifty-fom- forty or fight." Treaty of Washington. 

80. Annexation of Texas. — Jackson's policy. Recognition 
only : Lecture 72. Van Buren's policy : Von Hoist, ii. 599-612. 
Tyler's policy : Von Hoist, ii. 612-14, 625-43. Annexation in the 
campaign of 1844 : Von Hoist, ii. 677-90, 702-709. Annexation by 
joint resolution: Von Hoist, ii. 709-14 ; Greeley, i. 171-73. 

81. Causes of the Mexican "War. — Breach of neutrality by 
the United States : Von Hoist, ii. 571-85. Recognition of Texas : 
Lecture 72. Question of claims : Von Hoist, ii. 592-601, 604-606, 
627, 634-36, 681. Jones's attack on Monterey: Von Hoist, ii. 61.5-20. 
Annexation of Texas : Von Hoist, ii. 680, iii. 80-82. Occupation 
of Texas : Von Hoist, iii. 93-99. Claim up to the Rio Grande : 
Von Hoist, III. 84^93 ; Gal. in. 574-79. Greed for California : Von 
Hoist, III. 108-13. 

82. Mexican "War. — Preliminaries. Military operations. Peace 
of Guadeloupe Hidalgo : Von Hoist, in. 

83. Territorial Slavery. — Comparison of North and South. 
Constitutional question of territorial slavery. Application to new 
territory. 

84. The Crisis of 1848-49. — Election of 1848. Status of the 
slavery question. 

85. Compromise of 1850. — Compromise proposed. Attitude 
of public men : Greeley, 203-207. Compromise carried : Von Hoist, 
III. 545-61. Wlio won the victory? Von Hoist, in. 561-62. 

86. Review of the Second Half Year. 

It will bo noticed that there fire but few distinctively bio- 
graphical sketclies in the course just outlined. The deficiency 
is supplied in part l)y constant reference to the character and 
motives of the actors in the historical drama ; it is further 



AMElilCAN HISTORY. l5 

supplied by references to brief biographies, particularly the 
excellent American Statesmen Series. Nevertheless, the 
course might be improved by systematically taking up one 
man after another, in connection with some event in which 
he was particularly concerned. Such a plan has been elab- 
orated in the following 

Topics for a Course of Twenty Lectures.^ 

1. The United States in 1789. 

2. Organization and consolidation of the governnaent. — Hamilton. 

3. Foreign relations and neutrality. — Washington. 

4. Fall of the Federal party. — John Adams. 

5. Public lands and the annexation of Louisiana. — Gallatin. 
G. Neutral trade and the embargo. — Jefferson. 

7. War of 1812 and its results. — Madison. 

8. Slavery and the Missouri Compromise. — Monroe. 

9. Florida purchase and the Monroe doctrine. — John Quincy 
Adams. 

10. Jackson's election and the spoils system. — Van Bureu. 

11. The United States Bank and the Sub-treasury. — Jackson. 

12. Conflicts with States, and nullification. — Calhoun. 

13. The tariff, surplus revenue, and internal unprovements. — 
Clay. 

14. The anti-slavery movement. — Giddings. 

15. Annexation of Texas, and the Mexican War. — Polk. 

IG. Completion of the boundaries of the United States. — Benton. 

17. Compromise of 1850. — Webster. 

18. Kansas-Nebraska struggle. — Douglas. 

19. The slavery issue, and election of 1860. — Seward. 

20. Causes of the Civil War. — Jefferson Davis. 

In connection with the lectures several aids for the student 
have been put in operation. The chief ones are: a printed 

1 This course has been arranged for the Swain Free School of New 
Bedford, Mass. 



16 METHODS OF TEACHING 

"outline"; helps on note-taking; maps; diagrams; and 
helps on thesis writing. 

Tlie " outline," of which a sample follows, is prepared by 
the instructor, and printed, at the expense of those of the 
class who choose to subscribe for it, under the direction of a 
committee of their own number. The cost has been about 
a dollar and a half a page. It is printed in paragraphs, so 
as readily to catch the e^'c ; it is printed on one side, so that 
the successive lectures may be detached and put among the 
students' notes, each in its proper place ; it is printed in 
advance, so that the student ma^^ have it before him while 
he listens. The following is the outline for the first four 
lectures of the course for 1 884-85 : — 

Note. — Opposite eacli heavy-face heading are noted several brief 
references, any one of whicli is sufficient for a general outline of tlie 
topic taken up in that section ; the more detailed references, in tlie 
body of tlie text, are intended for the convenience of those who desire 
to go deejier into the liistory of the period. 

I. PUOVINCIAL GOVEKNMENT AND COLONIAL UnION (1612-1765). 

Introduction. The Federal building as we find it. 

1. Tlie site — territory. 

2. The builders ^ — -"the people." 

3. Materials — institutions. 

4. The plan — the Constitution. 

5. The agent — a personified head. 

6. The purpose — government. 

I. The Land : Frothin(jhnm, Rise of the Republic, 1-5. 

1. In 1620 : the wilderness and its inhabitants. Map. 

2. In 1765 : the British Colonies. Map. 

3. Who owned the land? Story's Commentaries, §§ 1-38. 

II, The People: Lodge, English Colonies in America, ch. ii., 

ch. XVIII. ; AIcMaster, History of the People of the United 
States, I., ch. i. 



AMERICAN HISTORY. 17 

1. The race : sturdiness of the Anglo-Saxons. 

2. Immigration : causes and distribution. Map. 

3. Population : increase and settlement. Diagram. 

III. Free Institutions : FrutJiingham, 11-32 ; Bancroft, ii., cli. xvii. 

1. Rights of Englishmen : Slori/, §§ 146-58. 

2. English representative institutions. 

3. Principle of self-government : Porter, Outlines of the Consiilu- 

tional Ilistonj of the United Slates, 1-36. 

4. Special Colonial Institutions : Story's Commentaries, §§ 159- 

07. 

a. "Provincial governments." 
h. " Proprietary governments." 
c. " Charter governments." 

5. Control by the home government : Lecky, History of the Eigh- 

teenth Century, ii. 2, in. 272,299 ; Bancroft, in. 1-12, lOO-lOS; 
Story, §§ 183-97. 

IV. Attempts to form Colonial Unions : Porter, 36-37. 
1643. " The United Colonies of New England " : Lodge, 351-58. 
1696-1752. Various English and American plans : Frothingham, 

111-16. 
1754. Congress of Albany — Franklin's scheme : Frothingham, 

132-40. 
1765. Informal union in the Stamp- Act Congress : Frothingham, 

177-89. 
Why union was difficult. 

II. Revolutionary Union and Independence. (1765-1776.) 

I. Union Accomplished: Von Ilolst, History of the United States, 
I. 1-20. 
A. The W^ay Prepared : Frothingham, 2m-SG, S20-dd ; Lodge, 
476-91. 

1. 'VVliy union was possible. 

2. Eifect of the Stamp- Act Congress. 

3. 1772-73. Committees of Correspondence. 

4. 1774. First Continental Congress, union still voluntary: 

Journals of Congress, i. 3-67. 



18 METHODS OF TEACHING 

B. 1775-81. A General Government in the Second Conti- 
nental Congress : Lodge, 498-500, 510-21 ; Frothirujham, 
406-90. 
" The form of the structure." 

1. What was Congress? Story, § 201 ; Frothingham, 420. 

2 . What was Congress authorized to do ? Journal of Congress, 

I. 73-78. 

3. What did Congress do ? Story, §§ 202-205, 214-17 ; Diagram. 
Conduct of the war — Foreign affaii's : lUldretlis United 

States, III. 76-98. 
General goveniing powers. Direction of the States. 

4. What Congress could not do. 

II. Independence Accomplished : Fon Hoist, i. 20-35 ; Hildreth, 
III. 124-39. 

A. The Way Prepared : Frothingham, 496-539 ; Bancroft, viii. 

384-93, 434-02. 
Early predictions and suggestions. 
Loyalty at the beginning of the Revolution. 

1775. May 31. Mecklenburg resolutions. 

Nov. 3. N. 11. advised to fonn a government. 

1776. March-June. Instructions of the States. 
ISIay 15. Congress votes for independence. 

B. The Declaration of Independence : Frothingham, 5'd9-Q0 ; 

Morse's Life of Jefferson, 26-40. 

1 . Who made it ? Jefferson, i. 9-26. 

2. By what authority? Story, §§ 205-13. 

3. Its influence. 

4. Its nature and bearing : Bancroft, viii. 462-75, 

5. Who was made " independent " : Story, § 213. 

in. State Governments and Imperfect Union. 

(1776-1786.) 
I. The States. 

A. What is a State ? Story, §§ 207-209. 

B. Birth of the States: /f/Wre//;, iii. 374-95 ; Curtis, History 

of the Constitution of the United States, i. 37, 116-20. 
Colonies left without government. 



AMERICAN HISTORY. 19 

1775-76. Advice of Congress : Frotldnfjiiam, 443-44, 447-51. 
Adoption of State constitutions : Frothinr/ham, 491-96, 506, 

56:3-08. 
C. Is the Union Older than the States ? Von Hoist, i. 7-11 : 

Story, §§ 210-13 ; Curtis, i. 37-40, 122. 
State rights view. Calhoun's Works, i. 190. 
Temporary purpose vievv^ : Jefferson in Von Hoist, i. 7 n. 
National view : Lincohi's Message, July 4, 1861. 

II. The Confederation : Von Hoist, i. 20-46 ; Story, §§ 218-42. 

A. Articles of Confederation. " The plan of the structure "; 

Hildreth, in. 395-410. 
1775-77. Suggestions and drafts : Curtis, i. 104, 124-30. 
1777. Nov. 15. Congress adopts the Articles : Frotldngham, 

569-79. 
The Territorial disputes : //. B. Adams in Maryland Historical 

Society Publications : Curtis, i. 131-40; Afap. 
1731. March 1. The Confederation in effect. Map. 
Powers granted — Powers withlield : Curtis, i. 140-49. 

B. Defects of the Confederation : Story, § 205. 
1. In form. 

, 2. In powers granted. 

3. In means of carrying out its powers. 

4. Weakness and timidity. 

C. Violations of the Articles of Confederation : Elliot De- 

hates, V. 207-208. 

1. The States do not perform their duties. Diagrams. 

2. Congress oversteps its powers : The Federalist, No. 39. 

3. The States quarrel with each other : McMaster, i. 210. 

III. Union of States in a Confederation a Failure : McMaster, 

I., ch. III. ; Schouler, History of the United States, i. 19-34 ; 

Story, §§ 243-71. 
Debts unpaid ; Newburg Addresses : Bancroft, History of the 

Constitution of the United States, i. 76-101 ; Curtis, i. 155-74. 
Commerce unprotected : Curtis, i. 276-90. 
Treaty unfulfilled : Curtis, i. 249-59. 
State governments oppressive : Bancroft, Constitution, i. 228-41. 



20 METHODS OF TEACHING 

The people rebellious : McMaster, i. 204-354. 
Western territory ungoverned : Curtis, i. 291-308. 
Threatened withdrawal of the West : Curtis, i. 309-27. 
The plan must be altered or the building abandoned. 

IV. A National Government and the Union. (1781-1789.) 

I. Attempt to Improve the Articles of Confederation : Curtis, 

I. 328-79. 

A. By granting Particular Po-wers. 

1781. Five per cent scheme : Bancroft, Constitution, i. 34-45. 

1783. Res^enue scheme : Curtis, i. 233-48. 

1784. Commercial scheme: Curtis, i. 27G-90; Bancroft, 

Constitution, i. 184-209. 
1787. North-west Ordinance. 

B. By granting Pow^ers of Enforcement. 

C. By altering the Form of the Government. 

1. To a monarchy. (Morris.) 

2. To a centralized government. 

3. To a closer federal government: Bancnfl, Co7istitntion, 

I. 14(j-G7. 

II. The Philadelphia Convention : Von Ilolst, i. 47-53 ; Froth- 

inffham, 589-97 ; HiUlreth, iii. 482-52G ; Bancroft, Constitution, 
II. 3-222 ; Curtis, Constitution, ii. 3-487 ; McMaster, i. 438-53. 

Early suggestions of a Convention: Bancroft, Constitution, 
I. 11-76. 

Annapolis Convention and formal call : Curtis, i. 340-79. 

1. Powers of the Convention : Curtis, ii. 3-17. 

2. Its task. 

3. Its difficulties. 

4. Its compromises. 

5. Its product, — the " New Roof": Von Ilolst, i. 04-79; 

Frothingliam, 597-010. 

a. A " government " established : in practical form. 

b. A government with power over individuals. 

c. A government with power to protect itself. 

d. A government which could govern; purpose of the 

structure. 



AMEIUCAN HlSTOllY. 21 

IV. Acceptance of the Constitution : Fan Hoist, i. 53-63 ; 
McMaster, i. 454—501 ; Curtis, ii. -41)1-604 ; Bancroft, Consti^ 
tution, II. 225-350. 

1. Process. (1787-88.) 

2. Who ratified it? £ZZ/o/, i. 319-3.5. 

3. Who were the people of the United States ? Federalist, 

No. 39 ; Calhoun's Works, vi. 151-52 ; Elliot, iv. 499-510 ; 
Story, §§ 362, 463. 

4. 1789. April 6. The new government in effect. Map. 

As will at once be seen, the outline is metint to guide, and 
not to be memorized. Indeed, it is purposely cast into 
a negative form, which shall not convey too much direct 
information. The advantages of the system are many. It 
is an aid to intelligent note-taking : the references are veri- 
fied by the committee, and anno3-ing errors in getting down 
the references given by the lecturer are avoitled ; and since 
most of the citations are thus before him, the student may 
follow the lecture more closely. A convenient means of 
reference and cross-reference to the notes themselves is pro- 
vided. The lecturer is saved the necessit}" of putting tables 
and chronologies on the board, and the arrangement and 
sequence of his thought is made perfectly clear. To the 
student it is a skeleton read)' to be clothed from his own 
reading, or always at hand hereafter for a more elaborate 
stud}' of any topic that may become interesting to him. A 
further advantage is, that it is possible, together with the out- 
line, to have printed other helps or suggestions, such as do not 
strictly fall within the scope of the lectures. Such are the 

Principles of Constitutional Discussion. 
I. Distinguish clearly into which of the following departments 
of Controversy the question falls. 

1. Origin of the Constitution: including the question of its 
form. 



22 METHODS OF TEACHING 

2. Scope of the Constitution : usually, but not always, a dis- 

cussion of the extent of legislative powers. 

3. Interpreter of the Constitution : always involving the judi- 

ciary powers and the jurisdiction of the United States Courts. 

4. Execution of the Constitution : particularly relating to the 

executive powers, but including others. 

II. Observe the two aspects selected by the two great schools 
ot Constitutional exposition, — the loose constructionists and strict 
constructionists. 

1. Origin, a. Did " the people " form the Constitution ? 
h. Is it a " Compact "? 
Discussed particularly in 1791 and 1830. 
'2. Scope, a. Are there " Constructive powers " ? 

h. Are powers limited to " express grants " ? 
Discussed particularly in 1791, 1799, 1803, 1819, 1833, 1842. 

3. Interpreter, a. Is the Supreme Court the " Common arbiter " ? 

b. Can States "interpose" to make acts void? 
Discussed particularly in 1799, 1815. 

4. Execution, a. Can the United States " coerce " the execution 

of its acts ? 
b. Can States by " secession " make themselves 
independent ? 
Question raised in 1861. It involves the (piestion of allegiance. 

III. Draw arguments from four sources. 

1. Nature of government in general. 

2. "Words of the Constitution. 

3. Opinions. 

a. Testimony of " the fathers." 

b. Views of statesmen and jurists. 

c. Decisions of the Supreme Court. 

4. Usage, as shown in the histoi'v of the United States. 

IV. Keep in mind and avoid certain diflBculties. 

1. Confusion of arguments among the different departments of 

controversy. 

2. Possibility of bringing strong proofs of contrary aspects. 

3. Change of party views and party arguments. 



AMERICAN HISTORY. 23 

The main purpose of the " outline " is, however, to direct, 
or ratlier to suggest, the reading of tlie students. The range 
of references in any of the larger courses in history is re- 
stricted by three difficulties : one mechanical, one temporal, 
and one general. In the first place, no library- has a suf- 
ficient number of copies of original sources to furnish fift}- 
or a hundred men with working materials ; recourse must 
therefore be had to easily accessible books, which the stu- 
dent may own or borrow. In the second place, allowing a 
fair proportion of study hours to the subject of American 
history, there is time for reading, but not for research, col- 
lation, and selection of authorities. The difficulty is made 
greater by the overwhelming mass of undigested details : 
the instructor owes it to his students to select the really sig- 
nificant events for them, and to send them direct to a pas- 
sage where these events may be found described. If time 
is to be found for original investigation, tlie field must be 
restricted. Here comes in the third difficulty. To refer 
a student in a general way to a library or an alcove, or a 
work, or even a volume, for information, is, in average 
cases, to make sure that he will get none : the moral repug- 
nance to deciding what to do first and where to begin, is 
great enough, without adding the discouragement of having 
to select one's materials. It is, of course, a good thing for 
a man to read books which are not very useful, and to handle 
and recognize many that he cannot read. But, as a practical 
matter of fact, ordinary students cannot be got to investigate 
in a course covering so much ground ; and, indeed, where 
there is so much trash, it is unfair to turn them into an intel- 
lectual cornfield, to help themselves. The references there- 
fore should be specific and limited : there should be no excuse 
for not taking hold somewhere. The first class of references 
in the outline is made up of those opposite the sub-heads of 



24 METHODS OF TEACHING 

the lectures ; many are given in the list of topics quoted 
above. The}- are to common books ; they are precise ; they 
are limited ; the student is held responsible for one, at least, 
on ever}' sub-topic. The second class of references, in the 
body of the outline, is intended for the more aml)itious stu- 
dents, or for special work ; tlie references arc cliiefly to the 
sources. 

In arranging the references, care is taken to introduce the 
reader to a A^ariety of authors, and to refer often to books 
which take a dilTerent view from that presented in the lec- 
tures. The wliole plan rather takes for granted some system 
of "reserved books," by which the books most often cited 
arc kept altogether for use in tlie library, or may be drawn 
out only over night. The one book on which most reliance is 
placed is Von Hoist's. No writer has so thoroughly studied 
and digested the enormous mass of matei'ial ; no writer 
searches more carefuUj- for the hidden springs of action ; 
none is so suggestive. He assumes, however, a general 
knowledge of the history of the country, which must be 
supplied by other reading or from the lectures. 

Neitlicr the outline nor the study of the references is con- 
sidered sufficient. Students are expected to take careful 
notes, and to complete them out of their own reading. As 
an assistance to the somewhat difficult labor, a system is 
recommended : it is designed to spare as much time from the 
manual labor of wi'iting as may be, and thus to leave as 
much as possible for study. 

Suggestions for taking Notes. 

1. Plave a regular system. 

2. If you have worked out a system of your own which satisfies 
you, do not change it. 

3. Shorthand is not a great convenience, unless the notes are 
afterwards put into a form whicli may be read by any one. 



AMERICAN HISTORY. 25 

4. A system of recognizal^le abbreviations is desirable. 

5. Take notes all the time during the lecture. 

6. A word-for-word reproduction of what you hear is mucli less 
valuable to you than your own condensed form, embodying the 
lecturer's ideas. 

7. Distinguish in your own mind the heads of the lecture as it 
proceeds, and paragrapli your notes accordingly. 

8. Aim to set down the substance of general statements, in 
your own words, rather than to note a part of each sentence. 

9. Practise getting the exact words of significant phi-ases or 
quotations. 

10. If you miss something important, ask to have it repeated. 

11. If you lose a lecture, fill up the blank immediately, from 
the note-book of a fellow-student. 

12. After each lecture, go over your notes, and clearly indicate 
the heads : (a) by catch-words in the margin ; or (I) by under- 
lining words. 

13. Once a week review the notes taken since the previous 
review. 

14. Make out a brief table of contents, as you go along, refer- 
ring to pages of your note-l^ooks. 

[_For courses, in any subject, made tip chiefly of lectures 
with paraUel readings, the folloioincj specific system is recom- 
m.ended.~\ 

1. Use a note-book ruled in three vertical columns : a narrower 
one next the outer edge ; the remaining space on each page equally 
divided. Let there be a broad horizontal line an inch or more 
from the top. 

2. Enter your notes in the middle column; dates and headings 
(if desired) in the outer column. 

3. Do not rewrite the notes taken in class. 

4. Enter abstracts or quotations from yom- later readings in the 
inner column, each opposite the passage in the notes whicli it is 
meant to illustrate. 



26 METHODS OF TEACHmG 

5. Across the top of the page write a running heading in two, 
three, or four members, summarizing the matter on tlie page ; e.g., 
" History, — Methods, — Note-Taking." 

6. Begin to write on the right side of the opened book, and 
begin each distinct general head on a new" leaf. 

7. Each leaf being thus complete in itself may at any time be 
detached and used in another connection ; or others may be inter- * 
leaved, without disturbing the logical connection. 

8. Copy or reproduce tables, diagrams, or maps before the 
succeeding lecture. 

One of the most important aids to the study of American 
history is the use of maps. A large outline map should be 
painted on a movable blackboard ; it is sufficient to indicate 
the coasts, and a few great water-courses, and the State 
boundary lines. By using colored crayons, it is easy, in a 
few minutes, to present any desired general maps, on a scale 
large enough to be seen at a distance of forty feet. Where 
a larger scale is desired, or the field is out of the limits of 
the United States, sketches may be made on the blackboard, 
or permanent maps on thick paper. It is much simpler than 
it seems to draw rough maps on a large scale : even those 
who are not draughtsmen will find no difficulty. A roll of 
strong mauila paper, a few colored crayons, or, better still, 
water colors, a 3'ard-stick, and a small map on which rect- 
angles may be lightl}' ruled, are all the materials necessaiy. 
For the student's use, the signal-service weather-map, which 
costs eighteen cents a dozen, is exactly what is needed : with 
a few colored pencils he can reproduce the large map ; and, 
at the end of the 3'ear, he will haA^e a historical atlas of his 
own. 

The first use of the maps is to illustrate the territorial 
development of the country, by bringing before the eye the 
successive cessions and purchases. At the same time, the 



AMEllICAN HISTORY. 27 

perplexing boundavy controversies ma}' be made clear. The 
close connection between annexations and the inner political 
history of the country is often brought out in startling relief, 
when presented to the eye. Next comes the internal devel- 
opment of the country. Successive maps, dated sa}' ten 
years apart, may show the extent of settlement, and the 
formation of Territories and States. Even political affairs 
ma}' sometimes be strikingly mapped out : thus, a series of 
maps showing the distribution of the Presidential vote in 
each succeeding election will forever fix in the mind the 
slow growth of sectional parties. Special maps may be used 
for a variety of purposes. The theatre of wars and cam- 
paigns, detailed boundary controversies, proposed sites for 
the national capital, schemes of internal improvements, — 
these and many like subjects ma}' be made to appeal to the 
eye. 

Another form of illustration, equally useful, and much less 
generally known, is the use of graphic charts. A set of 
coordinate lines, ruled on a blackboard, or perhaps on the 
back of the movable map, and a dozen colored crayons, are 
all that is necessary. The student can use cross-section 
paper and a few colored pencils. All the various forms of 
graphic charts can be put in use : curves, blocks, squares, 
triangles, circles, or shaded maps. The easiest subject to 
illustrate is the growth of population : a curve may be drawn 
in five minutes which will leave ou the mind a clearer notion 
of the progress of "the United States than could half a dozen 
pages of print. Two similar curves will show ineffaceably 
the comparative growth of the sections ; another diagram 
may show a comparison between the population of this and 
of other countries : and the student will never forget how 
the United States has outstripped most European powers if 
he has once seen its rocket's path plotted out. In like man- 



28 METHODS OF TEACHING 

ner, the apportioument of representatives to the States and 
sections ma^- be represented, or the status of political parties 
in Congress. A most suggestive diagram may be made of 
the changes in the rank of States, reckoning by population. 
Then come revenue, expenditure, and debt : they may be 
compared with each other, or with similar statistics in other 
countries. By the same system may be shown the territorial 
extension of the United States, and the division of the acqui- 
sitions between the sections. The depreciation of paper cur- 
rency, the number of banks, and other economic phenomena 
may be clearly shown. Tlie sales of the available public 
lands, appropriations for iuternal improvements, are exam- 
ples of similar possibilities. In the census atlas of 1874, 
and the census reports of 1870 and 1880, may be found a 
variety of such charts. It is even possible to represent cer- 
tain great political doctrines by diagram : thus the different 
theories as to the ratification of the Constitution may be 
defined from each other by a few simple drawings. 

Only one aid for the student remains to be described. To 
require theses is to expect more than the average student can 
give, in time and thought. It is well, however, to encourage 
them ; and it will almost always be found that the best writer 
has also the best general knowledge of the course. The onl}' 
general instruction given in connection with the course is 
summed up in the 

Hints to Thesis Writer^. 

1. Be sure you are willing to do the necessary work. 

2. Select a subject which interests you, if possible in a limited 

field, but over a long period. 

3. Begin by noting the chief authorities. 
a. Furnished by the instructor. 

h. In Poole's Index and the Q. P. Indexes. 
c. In the Subject Catalogue. 



AMERICAN HISTORY, 29 

d. In other classified library catalogues. 

e. In accessible bibliographies. 

Write the title, aiitlior (witli initials), place, and date. 

4. Have a system of note-taking. 

a. Note only one subject on each piece of paper. 

h. Note the authority, volume, and page, for each quotation or 

abstract. 
c. Preferably use loose sheets, arranging as you go. 

5. From the general authorities, make out a synopsis of the chief 

points which are to be studied, observing : 
a. New authorities and references for extension of details ; 
h. Chronological development ; 
c. Salient sub-heads of your subject. 
G. Extend the details which appear to you to need further exam- 
ination. If necessary make synopses of the sub-heads. Make 
references for other sub-heads, but abstract them later. 

7. Arrange your sheets of notes in a logical form, sub-heads 

under main heads. Choose between chronological or topical 
arrangement, or a comliination. 

8. Compose the thesis. 

a. First settling the proportions. 

b. Introducing striking quotations. 

c. Giving exact references for all important statements of fact. 

9. Write only on one side of your paper, and leave space for 

your foot-notes on the same page as the text which they 
illustrate. 

10. Do yoi\r work throughout as though it were to appear in print. 

11. Add a bibliography of authorities, with brief remarks on the 

bearing of the most important. 

The value of the work to the student needs no argument ; 
and the results at Harvard have been such as to justiCy the 
system. Those who engage in it find their interest in the 
whole field aroused ; the}' are quicker to seize on the great 
principles of the subject, and, in some cases, they do work 
of real scientific value. 



30 METHOD OF TEACHING 

The means employed to keep studcuts up to their work 
may be very briefly described. The first is, a series of writ- 
ten exercises. Periiaps the most helpful are the brief written 
suggestions on questions raised in the lectures, to which ref- 
erence has alread}' been made. They can be arranged so as 
to call for a little original thinking. The second test is a 
system of brief examinations, — perhaps ten or fifteen min- 
utes, once a week ; they may be contrived to require the 
application of principles, developed in the lectures, to new 
specific cases. A third means, the recitation or quiz, takes 
time from the lectures, and is nearly impossible in a large 
class. The main dependence is on the regular examinations, 
twice a year. Questions can always be so framed as to call 
for thought rather than for a memory of details ; and an 
opportunit}' ma}' be given to put most of the time on two or 
three general questions, testing the knowledge of the whole 
subject. 

Note to the Third Edition. — Useful as is the system 
of special maps and charts for graphic illustrations of his- 
tory, and stimulating to the students as they prove, in prac- 
tice it is found somewhat irksome to prepare the same series 
over and over again on the blackboard. An outline on a 
large scale is hence a great convenience where a large num- 
ber of charts or maps of the same region is necessary. The 
first copy may be enlarged from any small map by a simple 
process. Divide the small map into squares (by pencil lines 
on its surface or on oiled paper stretched over it) , lay out 
the large paper in proportional squares, and strike up the 
outlines b}' hand : the form will be nearly enough correct for 
the purpose. To reproduce the large outline thus drawn is 
a matter of some difficult}'. Perhaps there is no better way 
than to prick through the principal angles, though it is at 



AMERICAN HISTOKY. 31 

best unsjitisfactory. For his own classes, the writer has 
had drawn and printed an outline map of the United States, 
G2x88 inches, in four sections. It has proved so easy to 
make permanent colored maps upon this outline, and the 
S3'stera has been so useful, that permission has been given 
for its reproduction and improvement ; and it is now issued 
by the publisher of this book. 

Coordinate paper in size and ruling suitable for a class- 
room is nowhere to be had unless specially ordered. It 
ma}', of course, be ruled off b}- hand. Appended is a speci- 
men, in reduced size, of a chart designed by the writer, and 
found interesting by students. In the original the lines of 
curve are colored, and therefore much easier to separate 
from each other. 

For class use, the small outline maps of the United States, 
from the plates of the census report of 1880, have been found 
better than those of the signal service mentioned above. They 
are lOxlG inches, and cost about two dollars and a half a 
hundred. They may be had through the publisher of this 
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1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 



Drawn by Albert B. Hart : 
From Laughliu's .Mills' J'uliticul Econumy, Appletons'. 



The Practical Method in Higher Historical 
Instruction. 



By Ephraim Emerton, of Harvard University. 



I 



N tlie academic teaching of history three possible methods 
of iustruction suggest themselves at once : the recitation, 
the lecture, and original work. We may assume for the 
present that the discussion as to the value of recitation from 
a book is practically at an end. While admitting that the 
power of accurate re-statement of a thing learned is valuable 
to the student, the common sense of most has concluded 
that the time spent by an educated man in listening to such 
repetition is an actual loss to science, and that the brighter 
students of a class can employ themselves very much more 
profitably than in hearing the mistakes of their duller mates. 
Adding to this that the learning of what is contained in any 
one book, especially on a subject admitting wide difference 
in point of view, can go but little way toward widening or 
deepening a man's mental capacity, and remembering that 
such acquisition is usually easiest to shallow minds, we may 
at once relegate recitations to their proper place, namely, in 
elementary instruction, where they ought to be insisted upon 
with unbending severity. 

The historical lecture, while liable to great abuses, lias 
certainly its well-defined use, and, therefore, its right to be. 
It should not be designed to convey definite and detailed in- 



32 THE PRACTICAL METHOD IN 

formation. That is the evil in German^^ Men of mediocre 
— even men of splendid talents often commit the glaring 
mistake of spending four or five hovirs a week in the dreary 
recitation of facts which their hearers could gather in one- 
tenth of the time from printed books. Perhaps the book 
might even be the work of the very lecturer who is now 
making his capital pay him a double interest. I recall a 
course of lectures on German History given by a man whose 
name, standing among the very highest in Germany, served 
to fill his auditorium with a keenly-expectant audience. In 
the course of a fortnight a dozen hearers might have been 
counted, scattered about among the nearly empty' benches. 
The instinct of the students liad shown them that he was not 
offering them anything which they could not gain more easily 
elsewhere. 

The justification of academic lectures on history, is that 
they shall contain snggestioyi, which shall enable students to 
do their own reading intelligently, and, therefore, profitably. 
They should contain the result of varied reading and re- 
search, summarizing the outcome of long controversies, 
showing how events of one period explain and are explained 
Ijy those of another. It would take the inexperienced student 
weeks of reading to grasp the meaning of men and events 
which his instructor may present to him in a paragraph. 
Not that this presentation can ever be accepted as a substi- 
tute for the student's own reading, but that it forms the 
almost indispensable condition of a wise and profitable use 
of historical works. Reading alone soon becomes repulsive 
and wearisome because one sees no way out of it. All 
books seem alike dreary and stale ; but let the living word 
of a living man once illumine the whole study with its in- 
vigorating rays, and the student finds his reading filled with 
.a meaning he never dreamed of. 



HIGHEK HISTORICAL INSTRUCTION. 33 

The danger here I have ah-eady hinted at. Goethe saw 
it clearly enough : 

" Denn was man scliwarz auf weiss besitzt 
Kami man gctrost nacli Hause tragen," 

says the already half-conventionalized scholar to his infernal 
counsellor. The scholar cannot be wiser than his master. 
If a mere unthinking note-taking be accepted as sufficient 
effort on his part, he would be more than human if he made 
a greater one. Doubtless the result will disappoint him. 
He will find himself at the end of his studies wretchedly 
equipped for any scholarly work ; he will wonder why this is 
so, but he cannot be expected to reach the reason. Let him 
be assured that the reason is a very simple one ; his mind 
has never been called upon for independent, individual effort, 
and it is only the mind of a rare genius which works without 
being called upon. It would seem an astonishing proposition 
at this day that chemistry or physics could be taught without 
a laboratory, and yet it is not so very long since laboratories 
were either not used at all, or so very little as to be scarce 
worth mentioning. Experiment and demonstration by the 
instructor to his class go very little way. The student must 
have his chemicals and his apparatus in his own hands before 
he can have any realizing sense of the meaning of his science. 
Men have learned this in regard to physical study. In every 
new school of learning a well-equipped laboratory is as much 
a necessity as a well-trained teacher. It remains to apply 
the same method to other branches of education. Here 
we are concerned with history only, and the conclusion is 
inevitable, that historical teaching, to be effective, must not 
confine itself to lectures, but must supplement these by the 
method of original work. 

Attention has recently been called to this subject by two 



34 THE PEACTICAL METHOD IN 

articles' by Professor Ptml Frcdi'n-icq, lately of Li^ge, now 
of Ghent, who, in the years 1881 and 1882, visited the 
principal universities of Germany, and the various schools 
of Paris, to observe the methods of higher instruction in 
history. These articles are, as the author informs us, merely 
a traveller's notes, without any pretence at completeness or 
profundity. I have made use of them for certain statistical 
information not elsewhere easily accessible. Their grace 
of style and amiability of tone make them altogether quite 
attractive reading. 

The phrase employed by Professor Fredericq for the pecu- 
liar institution he was observing is the " cours jiratique" as 
opposed to the usual lecture-course, which he calls the " cours 
theorique." The term " Practice-rcourse " seems to me really 
an improvement upon the various originals employed in the 
different German universities, though these original terms 
have eacli an historical significance which the men who made 
them and have lianded them down would doubtless l)e sorry 
to lose. The " Gesellschaften " (societies), "• Seminaria " 
(training schools) , and "Uebungen " (exercises) of Germany 
appear all together in M. Fredericq's report as " cours pra- 
tiques " (practice-courses) . His word expresses tlie actual 
fact that these classes now form a regular part of the imiver- 
sity work ; are numbered among its published courses of 
instruction, and are counted as such, to the credit of both 
professors and students. The German terms, on the other 
hand, express the fact of their development out of originally 
voluntary and, one may say, extra-academic exercises. The 
Gesellschaft implies a society of students grouped about a 



1 "De rEnseignement Superieur de I'Histoire." Gand, 1882, pp. 49. In 
the "Revue de I'lnstruction publique en Belgique." 

" L'Enseignemeut Superieur de I'Histoire a Paris." Paris, 1883. pp. Gl. 
In the "Revue Interuational de TEnseignement." July 15, 1883. 



HIGHER HISTORICAL INSTRUCTION. 35 

professor, and working with liim in lines of special reseai'ch, 
and under conditions not imposed by academic rules, but 
growing out of the common enthusiasm for the study in 
hand. Their relation to their teacher reminds one of the 
early mediiiival relation of the university student to his lec- 
turer. It is personal, feudal almost, for there is a bond of 
mutual service here which ad(2s its force to distinguish these 
classes from their contemporaries, grouped in the ordinary 
lecture-room, and k'arning from the spoken word. While 
there a certain tradition, if not fixed statute, has determined 
the attitude of the student to tlie imposing l)eing who taUvS 
at him ex cathedra^ here all is voluntary, free, uncon- 
ventional. This is a society, a club, presided over by a 
professor, but composed, not of subject students, but of 
"members," of whom the guiding scholar, chancing to be 
a professor, is the chief. 

The word "Seminarium" brings us to another phase of 
the institution we are studying. The primitive society became 
a training-school. The German, with his hard-headed prac- 
tical sense, having allowed university teaching to crystallize 
into the form of a lecture-system, saw an escape from its 
deadening influence upon the mind in this new form of 
instruction. This enthusiasm of the individual student was 
now to be made practical. The name " Seminarium" denotes 
the fertilizing power of the historical " Gesellschaft" on the 
intellectual life of Germany. Out of these training-schools 
came the men who gave to historical science in Germany, 
and through Germany to the world, the impulse under which 
it is now moving. 

But by this time the voluntary association had become a 
recognized feature of university life. The professor con- 
ducted a Seminarium as a matter of coui'se, and tlie student 
who meant to distinguish himself in the department entered 



36 THE PRACTICAL METHOD IN 

one or more seminaria equally as a matter of course. And 
now comes the third of the distinctive names — the oldest 
in point of time — to express sharply the marked difference 
in kind of work done here from that of the ordinary class- 
room. '' Ue])ungen " still denotes the practical character of 
the Seminar work, and is the one term from which M. Fre- 
dericq has derived his " cours pratique." Its meaning is 
that uppermost in the student's mind. Elsewhere he is a 
listener, here he is a worker ; no longer a mere receiver of 
another man's thought, he becomes an investigator, a dis- 
coverer, a creator. 

The founder of practice-courses as an adjunct to higher 
historical instruction is the veteran professor Leopold llanke, 
now, in his eighty-ninth year, laboring with juvenile enthu- 
siasm and power on his crowning work, a History of the 
World. As early as 1830 Ranke began to gather about him 
such students as desired to learn the method of historical 
investigation, inviting them to a weekly meeting at his 
house. These meetings appear upon the Berlin university 
programme of that day as " exercitationes historicae." 
This private class in Ranke's study became in the truest 
sense of the word the semiuarium for all future historical 
work in Germany. Among its early members were Waitz, 
Duncker, Gieselirecht, Sybel, Adolf Schmidt, Wattenbach, 
and many others whose names have become synonyms for 
powerful and honest work in opening up the record of the 
past. These men, called to various universities, carried 
with them the practice-course as their chief .instrument in 
spreading the doctrine of true historical method which the 
great master Ranke had taught them. They have now be- 
come veterans in their turn, and their pupils, an army of still 
younger men, have carried out still more widely the theory of 
the practical method. 



HIGHER HISTORICAL IKST RUCTION. 37 

At first the sul)ject most often treated was the history of 
Germany's heroic age, the mediaeval empire ; but soon, 
under tlie leadership of the elder Droysen, modern history 
found its place, and at present no department of historical 
reseai'ch is without its practice-course as a supplement to 
theoretical teaching. At Berlin there are regularly six or 
eight such courses, led by men like Mommsen, Droysen, 
Wattenl)ach, Weizsaclier, Bresslau, and Hassel. Other 
universities follow with a number of courses proportioned to 
their strength in the department of history. 

Any one familiar with the inner working of these classes 
feels at once that here is the true life of the historical de- 
partment. Here it is that the professor reveals himself to 
his select pnpils as a fellow-worker with them. He is at 
work upon inquiries which are to bear fruit in his own publi- 
cation, and these young men are made to feel that they are 
contri])uting personally, by tlieir researches, to the comple- 
tion of these works. The method of procedure is practically 
the same in the various universities and under the various 
teachers. Indeed, it is Init one method employed with 
endless diversity, according to the character of the man in 
whose hands it may be. The essential principle of the 
practice-course is to lead the student back from the ordinary 
presentation of histor}^ as a completed whole in standard 
narratives to the original sources from which these narratives 
have been composed. To the ordinary student, higher as 
well as lower, the study of history means the reading of 
narratives describing men and events in the form of more or 
less entertaining stories. He fancies that he has passed 
from elementary to higher study when he reads somewhat 
bigger books and more of them. Even the German " Gym- 
nast " is liable to this error. He may bring it witli him to 
the university ; he may even retain it there so long as he 



38 THE PRACTICAL METHOD IN 

confines himself to the hearing of lectures and collateral 
reading, • — ■ V)iit the moment he passes the door of the semi- 
narium his error falls from him as hy magic. The charm 
which has heretofore surrounded the names of great histo- 
rians vanishes. He learns to accept nothing on their word. 
He demands the proof of every assertion, or if, as is often 
the case, proof be impossible, he demands at least evidence 
as to degree of probability. And this he does not blindly, 
not in the spirit of mere carping criticism, but intelligently, 
under the guidance of men who are themselves makers of 
books, and who are on the watch at every step to detect a 
flaw in his argument, an error in his judgment, or a gap in 
his powers of perception. Thus he becomes trained^ not 
merely learned, as we use that phrase to describe a man who 
has taken in an enormous amount of material, without 
regard to his ability to use it. The German Seminarist is 
armed at all points to grapple with his material wherever he 
may find it. 

The ordinary course of the Seminar work is somewhat as 
follows. The professor assigns to each member some topic 
for investigation, usually some controverted point upon 
which various opinions ma}' be possible. Often these topics 
are selected from a limited period, so that the various re- 
searches will cross each other at many points. Thus each 
student becomes familiar with the authorities used by all the 
others, and is able to form an intelligent judgment of their 
work. As the term progresses, any student may be called 
upon to criticise the work of every other. Ordinarily the 
result of each investigation is presented in the form of a 
written dissertation, which is read by its author, and publicly 
criticised, first by a member of the class selected beforehand 
for the purpose, then by other 7nembers at their pleasure, 
and finally by the professor himself. It is evident that this 



HIGHER HISTORICAL INSTRUCTION, 39 

criiicism is by no means the least useful part of the work. 
It is dealt out with an unsparing hand. Indeed, M. Fr6- 
d^rieq informs us that Professors Droysen and Mommsen 
refused to admit him to the exercises of their Seminars, ex- 
cusing this apparent want of courtesy by saying that the 
presence of a stranger might be a check upon the unlimited 
criticism which was there the rule. 

I had the good fortune to be, during one year, a regular 
member of the practice-course of the elder Droysen in Berlin, 
and can thoroughly confirm the impression received by M. 
Fredericq. The criticism was free and unrestrained to the 
verge of savagery. I well remember one unhappy youth, 
who ought never to have been there, whose productions were 
received with a mixture of derision and scathing logical 
analysis which, to a member of a less thick-skinned race, 
would have been torture. At the same time, I cannot help 
bearing testimony to the uniform consideration which I, as a 
stranger and a foreigner, received from students and profes- 
sor alike. The inspiration of the Saturday evenings spent 
amidst that vigorous intellectual jousting has entered into 
every moment of subsequent stud}^, and been a constant 
support in the effort to carry on the impulse there received. 

The papers thus produced, especially by students who have 
been for several terms members of the Seminar, are often of 
more than passing value, are actual contributions to historical 
science. The younger Droysen began some time since to 
publish the more important papers contributed in his class at 
Halle, and an association of university professors is now 
carrying on a similar work, with a larger scope, and a wider 
promise of usefulness. One ctan well understand that the 
prospect of such distinction must be a keen spur to the 
diligence and activity of mind of many a student, who, under 
the ordinary conditions of the lecture-room, would never have 
risen above his fellows. 



40 THE PEACTICAL METHOD IN 

Within a few years a distinction lias arisen between what 
we may call private and public practice-courses. The 
former are such as I have been describing, in which the 
membership is determined by the professor's judgment as to 
the capacity and promise of the individual student. 

The public courses mark an innovation upon the original 
plan. Certain professors, strongly impressed with the abso- 
lute importance of the practice-course as an agent in in- 
struction, and wishing to extend its advantages to as many 
students as possible, obtained from their governments suf- 
ficient appropriations of money to provide working-rooms 
for their classes, to furnish these rooms with reference libra- 
ries, and with all necessary appliances for study, and also 
to establish scholarships for regularly enrolled members. 
This system, while offering great attractions to a large body 
of students, has met with violent opposition from the more 
conservative professors to whom the traditions of the practice- 
course, as established by Rauke, had become especially dear. 
To their minds, the substitution of state control for the per- 
sonal relation of the instructor to the student must endanger 
the essential and vital principle of the Gesellschaft. In 
short, they believed that the very nature of the association 
implied the membership of picked men only, and more espe- 
cially of such as proposed to make historical work the business 
of their lives. However this may be, the two systems are 
now in operation side by side, and the future must determine 
wliich is based upon the truer foundation. Thus far, I 
incline to believe that the conservatives have the best of 
the argument. 

But it must not be supposed that the practice-course in its 
essential theory has escaped criticism and opposition. The 
point is made, and with much show of reason, that German 
historical writing has within the last two generations steadily 



HIGHER HISTORICAL INSTRUCTION. 41 

lost in breadth of view and in power of effective presenta- 
tion, while its gain has been steadily in the direction of 
minute and careful investigation of narrow and narrowing 
details. Perhaps the most striking illustration of the truth 
of this criticism is the fact that we are still without a satis- 
factory treatment of the history of Germany as a whole, 
while the number of treatises, large and small, upon detached 
periods or single institutions is simply distracting. There is 
scarcely a point in the whole range of German history which 
has not given rise to at least a Gymnasium-program or a 
Doctor-dissertation. It seems as if the very minuteness 
of the research into the records of the Fatherland had 
frightened everyone away from the task of moulding this 
whole mass into an available and comprehensive form. 

Now the charge is made that the cause of this deficiency 
in graphic power among German historians to-day is the 
belittling influence of the training in the Seminar. Certain 
it is that both leaders and followers in the work of disin- 
terring the German record from its long burial, and of 
preparing it for use in the world, have been the men who 
organized and developed the practice-course. We may 
admit further, that if the practice-course had not been, the 
Monumenta of Pertz, and the host of investigations leading 
up to and based upon that colossal undertaking, could 
scarcely have been produced. But I incline to think that 
this character of minute investigation does not imply the 
entire absence of graphic skill or breadth of historic insight. 
It is rather the evidence of a deeply-felt reaction from the 
false methods, — the dramatic form, the partisan purpose, 
the rhetorical elaboration, which mark the historical writing 
of the eighteenth century. The falseness of that method 
was so strongly felt that men avoided consciously any ap- 
proach toward brilliant presentation. Germans especially 



42 THE PKACTICAL METHOD EST 

did not care to cultivate a kind of ability which seemed to 
them of questionable value. Before philosophizing about 
the record, the record must be had ; and so the last half 
century lias been a time of accumulation and preparation of 
material upon which future philosophies of history may, if 
one pleases, be constructed. The distinctive character of 
German historical science has been an absolute devotion to 
the discovery of historical documents ; to comparing them, 
and thus ascertaining their value ; and then to publishing 
them in a form convenient for the use of scholars. 

If one must choose between a school of history whose main 
characteristic is esprit^ and one which rests upon a faithful 
and honest effort to base its whole narration upon tlie great- 
est attainable number of recorded facts, we cannot long 
hesitate. This character of diligence and honesty of research 
into tlie actual story of the past has been stamped upon 
Germany l)y the work of the seminary. Training has taken 
the place of l)rilliaucy, and the whole civilized world is to-day 
reaping the benefit. Doul.)tless, if this mechanical skill were 
to be the sole object of instruction, the result would be most 
unsatisfactory. After all, it is the power of arranging and 
combining his material which makes the great historian. 
Ranke himself is the triumphant vindication of his system. 
Let one but read the modest words of his preface to the 
German History, where he speaks of mastering the contents 
of something like a hundred folio volumes of proceedings of 
the Diet in one library, and as many more in another, before 
putting pen to paper, and then let one turn to his narrative, 
n\ which the spoils of this gigantic research are utilized with 
telling power, and one sees how in the hands of the master 
these two elements — minute research and gift of presenta- 
tion — are combined to produce a truly great historical 
work. 



HIGHER HISTORICAL INSTRUCTION. 



43 



So it must be with instruction, — the training of the hand 
must not exclude the culture of the mind. Nor does this 
seem to be, even in Germany, a threatening danger. With 
Treitschke, lecturing in an improvised auditorium to seven 
hundred students ; with Droysen, holding three hundred to 
a course of lectures on modern European history ; with 
Georg Voigt delighting a crowded audience in Leipzig witli 
his brilliant picture of the French Revolution, — there can 
be no fear that the student will be left without inspiration to 
broad and liberal reflection upon the great movements of 
history. Admitting a certain tendency to narrowness in the 
technical training of the seminary, there is the widest oppor- 
tunity for counteracting it and making it effective by the 
broader view and the more comprehensive range of the 
public lecture. 

The following table, compiled from the " Deutscher Univer- 
sitJits-Kalender," shows the amount of historical instruction 
offered in 1883-4 by the seven German universities which 
pa}^ most attention to the subject. The proportion of prac- 
tice-courses to theoretical teaching may easily be perceived. 



Berlin . . . 

Leipsic . . 

Halle . . . 

Breslau . . 

gottingen . 

Bonn . . . 
Heidelberg 







d 




















Ti 
















rt 




















o 
















rH 




























tu 








O 






>. 














<s 




o 




'Jl 




l-t 




■3 




S 


c3 
u 
O 

53 


g 


"^ 


i 






■Js 




j6 
5 


o 


o 

0) 

.2 


7^ 


a 


'S 


■■V 


tu 


o 


o 


0) 


^ 






'S 


rt 




3 rt 




a 


o 


1 


O 
1 


2 


1 


4 


1 


2 


1-1 


U* 


W 

1 


- 


1 


3 


a 


ii^ 


CJ 




2(; 


IPr. 




1 


4 


1 


2 




4 


IPr. 






1 




2 




1 




8 


25 






3 


4 


1 


1 


4 








1 




1 


1 


1 




4 


21 


1 




1 
2 
3 


2 
2 
2 


1 

1 
1 




4 
3 


2Pr. 


1 






1 


1 

2 
1 


1 


1 
1 




5 
4 
4 
2 


14 
14 
13 

8 



44 THE PRACTICAL METHOD IN 

But perhaps the best proof of the value of the practical 
method in historical teaching is its progress and its success 
in countries outside of Germany, notably in France.^ Until 
within twenty years, there had scarcely been such a thing as 
real historical instruction in France. There were, to be 
sure, at the ancient College de France, courses of history, 
held bv men of distinguished excellence as historians and 
lecturers ; but, strange as it sounds to our ears, these lectures 
were not addressed to students at all. They were held in 
open halls, where all the world might come, and the audience, 
varying with each lecture, was composed of women, travellers, 
and old men, of whom many chose this opportunity for their 
afternoon nap. If here and there a young man was seen, he 
was in no relation to the lecturer. He had only to take his 
notes, and do the best he could witli them. 

It is evident that this sort of historical treatment of any 
subject must be wholly wanting in every element of fruitful- 
ness. It could never produce men, who, in their time, should 
become effective teachers and writers. The glaring absurdity 
of such a system was visible to all the rising generation of 
scholars, but the method of reform was doubtful. The pro- 
cess finally adopted was to go around the ancient forms, and 
to establish new schools upon a different basis. This process 
has now been going on, with interruptions, from the time of 
tlie first Napoleon. The final result is a complex of schools, 
each with a certain purpose, with a separate government 
support, its own buildings or rooms, and its own pupils. 
And yet, so often do the purposes of these schools cross 
each other, that their separation cannot be kept complete, 
and simply causes a vast and inexcusable waste of money, 

1 The details of the French system are taken mainly from Professor 
Fredcricq's article. 



HIGHER HISTORICAL, INSTRUCTION. 45 

time, and energy. No less than five different scliools in 
Paris are devoted wliolly or in part to the study of history. 

1. The Collc^ge de France, dating from the time of Francis 
I., continues, almost unchanged, the traditions of the past, 
M. Fredericq heard some of the most distinguished scholars of 
France lecturing in enormous halls to a score or so of chance 
hearers, of whom scarce one could have had any serious 
scholarly purpose. 

2. The Faculty des Lettres, the successor of the ancient 
Sorbonue, occupies the building which still perpetuates the 
name of that venerable institution. Here, too, until within 
a few years, the instruction was mainly intended for hearers 
rather than for pupils ; but now, mainly through the energy 
of Victor Dm-uy, as minister of public instruction under 
Napoleon HI., the sul>stitution of pupils for hearers has be- 
come almost complete, and many of the more serious courses 
are now designated as cours fermes, to which admission can 
be had only on the written order of the Dean. The same 
general purpose has been followed in the appointment of 
promising young scholars as maltres de confere7ices, a posi- 
tion corresponding somewhat to that of the privatdocent in 
the German University. Students under the Faculty des 
Lettres are in training for a special diploma as teachers of 
history. This diploma has existed only since 1880, and 
marks the recognition of history as one among the sciences 
demanding trained teachers. 

3. The Ecole des Chartes was founded in 1821, but lived 
a precarious existence until 1847, when it was provided with 
sufficient quarters and a competent staff of instructors. Here 
we may learn especially the method of historical research. 
Instruction is given in palaeography, romance languages, 
bibliography and classification of libraries and archives, 
diplomatics, political, administrative, and judicial institutions 



46 THE PEACTICAL METHOD IN 

of Fi-fincc, the civil and canon law, and the archfeology of 
the middle ages. Here is to be found at least as great, if not 
a greater opportunity, for preparation in the art of writing 
history, than can be obtained at any German university. 
The excellent " Bibliotheque de I'Ecole des Chartes " con- 
tains the work of professors, pupils, and graduates. 

4. The Ecole Normale Superieure dates back beyond the 
Revolution, but was also first placed upon a sound working 
basis in 1847. History enters here as part of a general 
course for all students during two years, and may be made a 
specialty during the third and final year. During this third 
year, pupils may attend courses in the other schools. The 
distinct purpose of the Ecole Normale is the preparation of 
teachers. Only a limited number of pupils can enter each 
year, — perhaps one in every six or seven applicants, — a 
curious instance of protecting industry. 

5. The Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes was another 
creation of INIinister Duruy in the year 1868. The condition 
of French advanced teaching, even as late as that, was such 
that M. Duruy, in presenting his plan to the P^mperor, was 
forced to say that a student in Paris, however able lecturers 
he might hear, and however many and excellent books might 
be accessil)le to him, was left altogether without the personal 
guidance necessary to apply his study most effectively. This 
was true of all subjects. The remedy suggested by the 
minister was to offer, in addition to all tlie valuable and in- 
teresting instruction then given, a series of practice-courses, 
which, taken together, should form the £cole Pratiques des 
Hautes Etudes. One of the four branches of this school was 
that of history and philology. Beginning with but few 
pupils, the historical and philological branch of the Hautes 
Etudes now numbers twenty -five professors, and offers more 
than fifty practice-courses. Before presenting the plan for 



HIGHER HISTORICAL INSTRUCTION. 47 

this new departui*e, a systematic study of metliods in use in 
other counti'ies was made, and, of course, one sees clearly 
where the real model was found. The Conference of France 
is the " Seminar" of Germany. The most prominent leaders 
in the new movement have themselves studied in Germany. 
M. Alfred Maury is director of this department, aided by 
M. Gabriel Mouod, known to all the world of scholars as the 
editor, first of the " Revue Critique," and afterwards, of the 
" Revue Historique," altogether the leading historical periodi- 
cal of the world. From the beginning, the administration has 
been largely in the hands of young and comparatively little 
known men, who were in sympathy with the practical method, 
and had no ambition to become historical orators in the grand 
style of the previous generation. Thus, to the brilliant and 
vivacious Frenchman, as well as to the more stolid and plod- 
ding German, it has become clear, that to make a science 
fruitful, productiA^e of new work and new men, it must be made 
practical. The record of the past, as it lies there in inscrip- 
tions, institutions, legal records, names of places, coins, 
systems of chronology, as well as in consciously written 
histories, must be put into the hands of students, and they 
must be trained in the way to use them. 

There is something positively pathetic in the words of M. 
Lavisse, in the year 1880, to the pupils of the Faculte des 
Lettres.^ 

' ' I recall the time when I was a candidate for the histori- 
cal diploma, and, better still, the time, far less remote, when 
I watched the third-year pupils of the Ecole Normale at 
theu" work. At the beginning of the year they set them- 
selves bravely at their task, without a breathing-space from 



1 Quoted by M. Fredcricq, from the " Revue Interuationale de I'Eu- 
seignement" for February 15, 1881. 



48 THE PRACTICAL METHOD IN 

morning till night. They helped each other, but each did 
the liurden of his work for himself. The study-room was 
filled with books borrowed from the emptied shelves of the 
library. The drawers were filled with well-arrauged piles of 
notes. Their comrades, who were preparing for other exami- 
nations, especially in philosophy, where the demand was less 
burdensome, made fun of the unhappy historical students, 
whom they considered as mere day-laborers. But they held 
out bravely. History, thank God, has so potent a charm 
that it helps one to bear fatigue, as the hope of discovering 
a vast new horizon sustains the weary traveller who climbs 
painfully the steep mountain side ! But some of the travel- 
lers give out, and I have scarce known one of our future his- 
torians who was not overcome by discouragement on his 
way. It comes when one has passed over the grand ques- 
tions which atti-acted him at first, and finds that he has 
barely glanced at their surface, while he is already pressed 
upon by a throng of new ones, less important, but any one 
of which may, as we say, ' be given.' ' Do you think, sir,' 
they say to the tutor, ' that we shall have this question? or 
this? ' and the tutor cannot always say ' No.' There comes 
a moment when the student feels that he is going to drown 
himself. He loses his head, and begins to draw up lists of 
the kings of Egypt, the sultans of Turkey, or the Hansa 
cities, and rushes feverishly from the successors of Alexan- 
der to those of Charlemagne, from the Samnite war to the 
wars of the Roses, from the tributaries of the Danube to 
those of the Mississippi, from Hanno and Pytheas to Living- 
stone and Nachtigal, taking Marco Polo on the way. He 
comes down from books to outlines, and from outlines to 
manuals. He keeps before him the lyceum program ; he 
divides it into numbers, and marks off twenty or thirty num- 
bers on which he is prepared. There remain a hundred 



HIGHER HISTORICAL INSTRUCTION. 49 

about which he knows not a word. He comes up to his 
examination jaded out, and, what is worse, trained to 
wretclied habits, whicli may lead his mind astray forever, and 
disgust him with all honest work." 

Out of this slough of despair and self-deception French 
students have been rescued through the influence of the Ger- 
man Seminar S3'stem, applied with that wider tact which 
might have been expected from a people more susceptible 
to general ideas, and less in danger of becoming mechanical 
in their methods. 



"We are thus brought to the point toward which all that I 
have said thus far has ])een tending, — the possibility of use- 
fulness for the historical practice-course in America. It will 
be generally admitted that our historical instruction is at 
least in an undeveloped condition. Whether as a reflection 
of the ultra-American notion that we here are independent of 
all tradition, have nothing to learn from the experience of 
the past, or for whatever reason, the fact is that history 
forms an extremely unimportant clement in our plans of 
education. The New England colleges require for admission 
only a nodding acquaintance with Greek and Romar history, 
an amount of knowledge which may be readily taken in 
through the pores while "reading" classic authors. Of 
pAiropean and American history the ordinary Freshman has 
a colossal ignorance. Within these Eastern colleges them- 
selves the situation is not very much better. It would be 
idle to assert that history has as yet reached auytliiug like 
an equality with classics, mathematics, or science, either in 
the amount of time devoted to it or in the character of the 
men to whom its teaching is entrusted. As to the average 



50 THE rHACTICAL METHOD IN 

Western college, the attention paid to history is simply in- 
finitely small, and may be neglected. Until within a few 
years sucli a thing as a special preparation for teaching his- 
tory had not been heard of. Any classical instrnctor could 
teach the history of Greece or Rome, no matter if he had 
never in his life looked into his classics with any other pur- 
pose than to solve granunatical puzzles. Any "cultivated 
gentleman " could teach Eluropean history ; and as for 
America, one might suppose a knowledge of its history to 
form a part of those innate ideas some philosophers tell us 
a])()ut, for all the effort visible to compass it by way of 
education.^ 

Within these few years a very great change has taken 
place. The leaven of the German method has begun to work 
among us. Young Americans at German universities, l)e- 
coming impressed with the value of the system of instruction 
there, saw the hope of occupation and usefulness in trans- 
planting this method to our shores. They threw themselves 
with a new energy into the study of history as a science by 
itself, and their enthusiasm was rewarded by finding on their 
return that the leading colleges of their own land had kept 
pace with the demand of the time and were ready to employ 
them. The number of these younger scholars is not ver}' 
great. The road is an arduous one ; the rewards tardy and 
never dazzling. But, in spite of obstacles, the number of 
devoted scholars in this field is increasing. They arc reason- 
ably certain of finding employment. The lesser colleges 
must follow in the footsteps of the greater ; where classes of 
history do not exist, they will be created. The elementary 

1 Since the above was written, attention has been called to the defects 
in American historical teaching by President Eliot of Harvard University, 
in an address at Johns Hopkins University, printed in the "Century " maga- 
zine for June, 1884. 



HIGHER HISTOEICAL INSTRUCTION. 51 

teaching must become better and more widely diffused as the 
students of our colleges go out from under enthusiastic teach- 
ers to become teachers in their turn. So far as quantity 
goes, we may well believe that the future of historical teach- 
ing in our country is secure. It is now with quality that we 
are concerned. As soon as a branch of science takes a rec- 
ognized place upon the college programme, the question of 
method becomes of the first importance. 

If my argument as to recitations and lectures shall have 
been approved, it follows that the method of original work 
remains as the indispensable supplement to whatever other 
means of instruction the wise teacher may employ. I am 
aware that there is an intelligent opposition to this view. 
There are educators who maintain that the original work of 
college students is in itself of so little value that it is a mere 
waste of time. These ^^oungsters cannot be expected to 
produce anything better than what now exists, and would 
much better spend their time in learning the best of what 
has been done. "As well advise students of Shakespeare," 
said an accomplished professor of English, " to practise 
themselves in composing plays, in the hope of some day 
producing something better than their master." 

But this line of argument Avholl}'^ misses the point at issue. 
It is not for the sake of the immediate results that the prac- 
tice-course is to be commended. The student in chemistry 
does not expect to gain from his own early and awkward 
experiments any new or startling results. He onh' aims to 
comprehend, as one can only do by personal experiment, 
those laws of chemical action already laid down by previous 
investigation. So the student of history may not expect to 
arrive at new results during the time of his apprenticeship, 
but he will certainly leai'ii how other men have arrived at 
their results, and will thus know how to measure these at 



52 THE PRACTICAL METHOD IN 

their true value. We may even go a step further. Just 
as here and there a rarely gifted mind, working patiently 
through hands and eyes in the chemical laboratory, may 
strike out a truth which has escaped the experience of the 
past, so the vigorous mind, working out by means of origi- 
nal investigation problems of history, may here and there 
light upon a conclusion which shall at once elevate his work 
to the rank of distinguished excellence. 

In natural science we liaA^e come to recognize the absolute 
necessity of practical methods, and the expression of this is 
found in the countless chemical, physical, zoological, and 
geological laboratories now used even in the most element- 
ary scientific instruction. 

But, now, are not these illustrations of a great general law 
of education? Do they not declare that in moral science, as 
well as in physical, the practical method of instruction is the 
only effectual method? I believe that underneath all schemes 
and devices and systems and theories of education there lies 
one single great principle, — that one learns, in any true sense 
of the word, only that to which he puts the whole force of 
his own mind. We might throw away all our machinery, and 
still the man who should })ut the force of his mind upon the 
similarities of structure in flowers could produce a system of 
botany. Without a laboratory or a book the human mind 
would 1)0 capable of results, great because original, if it 
should turn itself with single devotion to dissecting animals, 
breaking and comparing stones, watching the developments 
of fd'tal life, or following out any other of those processes by 
which our present knowledge of the material world has been 
gained. And, conversely, given all our magnificent machin- 
ery of instruction, and the mind which does not apply itself 
to the problems before it, which is content to simply absorb 
what is oft'ered to it without vigorous action of its own, may 



HIGHER HTSTORICAL, INSTRUCTION. 53 

pass through tlie mill from hopper to bin without any change, 
excepting that, like the grain, it has grown smaller in the pro- 
cess. I take it that one very sti'ong reason for the popu- 
larity of physical science in these latter years is found in its 
method of study. The senses are reached more easily than 
the reflecting powers. Minds to which history, philosophy, 
law, seem mere accumulations of learning in books, — learn- 
ing Avhich is to be got at only by years of reading and remem- 
bering, — are atti'acted instantly by the manual processes 
which introduce them into the study of natural law. And 
until lately they have been justified in supposing that all 
those branches of study which they somewhat sneeriugly, 
perhaps, designate as culture studies, were nothing but 
masses of fictitious learning, founded upon nothing, and 
leading to nothing. 

If we think for a moment of the slough into which the 
study of language had fallen twenty-five years ago, and out 
of which it has not yet wholl}^ freed itself, we can understand 
why the phrase " classical study " had come to be almost 
a reproach. What has redeemed linguistic study from its 
downfall has been the use of new methods, practical methods 
in acquiring language, and the application of this acquired 
knowledge to the discovery of new truth in archaeology, 
ethnology, and in every other liranch of human learning. 
Now, instead of aimlessly cramming a Greek grammar into 
their pupils, enlightened teachers are teaching them to read 
and write Greek, then to use Greek, and thus to love and 
appreciate Greek. Or, if we glance at political science, we 
find that where twenty-five years ago there was one teacher, 
now there are a dozen, and we see again that men are learn- 
ing no longer by studying so many pages a day out of a 
book, but by putting their own powers of mind upon ques- 
tions whose solution can be reached by no other process. 



54 THE PRACTICAL METHOD IN 

Wise teachers of philosophy are forcing their students to 
grapple with problems of the mind, and so giving them 
power to follow and appreciate the work of those who 
liave gone before. 

Thus everywhere we see the conviction gaining ground that 
the method of practice is indeed the only effectual method. 
Laboratories in natural science, the "natural method "of 
learning language, insti'uction by topics instead of ])y text- 
books, — all these are parts of one movement towards a 
higher and more eftectual standard of instruction. How 
does it stand now with history ? Perhaps more than any 
other study, history has suffered, and is suffering, from that 
misconception I have alluded to, that it means only a dreary 
mass of facts, dates, and events, strung along like so many 
beads on a chain, and with no more distinction in value or 
meaning. It is the rarest thing to find a man who has any 
idea whatever about the materials of historical writing, or of 
the methods used in dealing with these materials. Even 
educated men are inclined to regard history as a collection 
of stories merely, more or less entertaining to read, but not 
having any really serious bearing upon the present active 
life of men. That there is a science of history, with its 
apparatus, its schools, its devotees, and its great results 
already reached, is an extremely unfamiliar fact. 

A professor of chemistry Once asked me to explain what 
original work in history could mean. He had supposes! that 
all history was in the books, and that all one had to do was 
to read these. One could not, he fancied, make new history 
as one made new experiments and discovered new relations 
in his own science. The answer made to him may be in 
place here. Original work in history consists in" an inquiry 
into the sources of authority for a given period or for a given 
statement or series of statements. Every conscientious his- 



HIGHER HISTORICAL INSTRUCTION. 55 

toriau of to-day goes through such a process in preparing 
his narrative, hut tliis process is not final. The mass of 
material for any period or for any series of events is so great 
that the powers of one man in one lifetime are not sufficient 
to grapple with it. There must still be a multitude of special 
investigations which he cannot pursue, a multitude of points 
still left obscure. These fui-uish the subjects for the original 
work of the future. A liistory of the world, for example, is 
to the historical scholar not a final account of what has hap- 
pened since the world began, but rather a vast encyclopedia 
of problems awaiting solution. He cannot meet them all ; 
he must content himself with selecting one or two upon 
which he shall spend the labor of a life. 

Now the practical question is, how can this original work 
be made a fruitful means of instruction in our higher schools? 
In answering tliis question, we may be guided by the expe- 
rience of Germany. It is our problem to secure the advan- 
tages and avoid the daugers to which I have already called 
attention. Emphasis Avas laid, it will be remembered, upon 
the voluntary character of the various associations which 
were classed together under the name of practice-courses. 
This voluntary character must be retained whenever the 
practice-course is made at home among us. It is inconceiv- 
able that whole classes of students should be called upon 
to do original work in an}- suliject with any prospect of 
success. The practice-course is not designed to replace 
more ordinary methods of instruction but to supplement 
them. It presupposes an election of studies by which it 
should be possible to bring only devoted students under its 
influence. With these conditions, it should be the duty and 
the pride of every historical instructor to conduct, at the 
side of his theoretical courses, another for ])ractice in the 
especial line of work he is engaged upon. Supposing there 



56 THE PRACTICAL METHOD IN 

be at a given college no professor of ancient history, then 
classical instructors should make it their l)usiness to guide 
their most promising pupils in historical research, using as 
materials the classic authors, who would thus become living 
sources of knowledge to them, instead of being, as they too 
often are, mere collections of grammatical puzzles. History' 
and literature would both be the gainers, each lighting up 
the other and filling it with unthought-of meanino-s. 

c cy cy 

As to mediaeval history, both of England and the conti- 
nent, its materials lie before us almost complete. The in- 
dustr}' of the recent awakening has turned with especial 
interest to this field. It would be possible for any American 
teacher to put before his students the volumes of original 
medieval sources from which all existing histories have been 
written, and to guide them into independent use of these 
materials in the criticism of written books and in preparing 
dissertations of their own. In modern European history, 
the case is somewhat more difficult, the mass of material 
increasing enormously, and far surpassing the powers of 
printing to place it all before the reading public. But here, 
too, very much has been done. The chief reports of am- 
liassadors, correspondence of princes, pamphlets, literature 
of the time, can be procured, and its complicated story be 
unravelled. 

But the field which should prove most attractive and 
remunerative to the American scholar is the growth and 
development of our own institutions. Here the material, 
ponderous as it is, lies all within our grasp. The same 
hunting-grounds invite us as those which led on European 
scholars of an earlier day. In every corner of America are 
to be found documents of every description bearing upon 
the formative period of our national life. Here are prob- 
lems not beyond the strength of any vigorous student. Be- 



HIGHER HISTORICAL INSTRUCTION. 57 

sides hearing lectures and reading books, let such students as 
can ])e convinced of its usefulness be brought together into a 
practice-course where they shall be brought face to face with 
actual records, and be called upon to solve a few of the 
unsolved problems which confront the future historian of 
America. What a mass of conflicting evidence will gather 
about the case of Fitz-John Porter ! The historian of the 
next generation will stand appalled before it ; but it will be 
his duty, and tlmt of the student also, to analyze the con- 
flict of motives which has produced this conflict of evidence. 
Now the past is full of such cases. The " rights " of scarce 
any historical question are fully understood. It is not 
enough to say to students, Bancroft or Hildreth or Von 
Hoist is right or wi'ong on this point. To impress them 
with the fact, we must put into their hands the very docu- 
ments from which these authors drew their argiunent, and let 
them draw their own. For the lecture to a large class, the 
statement might be enough, all that a majority of the hearers 
might be able to assimilate, but there should be among them 
some few capable of being inspired to more thorough work. 
These few should be encouraged. They should become the 
intimates Of their instructor. He should see in them the 
companions of his own researches and the sure reward of his 
own industry. They should see in him their leader in a road 
which is to take them up out of a boyish way into a manly 
way of study. 

And what is more, they will and do come to look upon 
each other, teacher and scholar, in this manly way. The 
work of the teacher is relieved of its worst element of drudg- 
ery, and the work of the student loses its worst element 
also, — that of mere memorizing and repeating. Both enter 
together, out of the realm of pedagogy into the world of let- 
ters. Nothing impressed M. Frederic^ so much, both in 



58 THE PRACTICAL METHOD IN 

Germany and France, as the free and familiar footing 
upon which professor and student met in the practice- 
courses. There was no m3'stery about it. Both were, for 
the time, upon the same level. In America, the same result 
will be more easily attainable. 

I can recall only with gratitiide the inspiration which came 
from the generous enthusiasm of those young men who have 
sat with me about the green table in the Harvard College 
library, working over, with a pure scholarly spirit, the dusty 
record of the middle ages. What a sense of discovery when 
tliey f oimd themselves touching the very thought of the men 
who lived through the events they describe ! Wluxt a triumph 
when they proved this book, bearing the imposing name of 
some famous scholar of our da}', to be a tissue of gaps and 
errors ! Nor could a scholar ask for any ampler reward than 
the repeated assurance of these young men that this power of 
independent thought was the best fruit of their student lives. 

One apparent obstacle to success in America lies in our 
almost universal system of grading students, by which all 
efforts, after a true scholarly standard, are hampered, and 
many of them wholly defeated. It ma}' well be imagined, 
that, to very many persons controlling our higher education, 
it would seem like dangerous favoritism for a professor to 
surround himself with picked students for a definite purpose. 
How shall these especial students be rewarded in marks? 
How can we measure their work so that neither they nor 
their fellows shall suffer by the comparison ? It would not 
be surprising if such petty considerations as these should 
actually prevent the adoption of the method I am suggesting. 
The hope is that the distrust of all individual rank in college, 
which has now become evident in several of our leading insti- 
tutions, will spread so widely that this primal curse of our 
whole educational sj'stem will soon disappear. 



HIGHER HISTORICAL INSTRUCTION. 59 

Another obstacle, gi-eater still perhaps, lies iu the deep- 
seated dread of putting pen to paper, which generally marks 
the American student. Writing appears to him oftenest as 
a kind of extra work. It suggests compositions with all their 
train of absurdities. It is to him a thing apart from his or- 
dinar}' studies, instead of being, as it should be, an instru- 
ment, the most useful instrument, in pursuing those studies. 
Our boys, for instance, may be forced to study Latin for 
years without writing one Latin sentence. The young Ger- 
man, on the other hand, must write constantly, so that form 
becomes a thing of nature to him, and writing is only what 
it ought to be, a means of education. The practice-course, to 
be successful, must be reinforced by early training in similar 
kinds of practice, and by the presence of similar exercises in 
related fields of study. If the time spent in what is called 
" English " in colleges were spent upon the use of English 
in the pursuit of other studies, the results could hardly fail 
to benefit immensely both the studies and the English itself. 
In a word, the time must be hoped for when in all the moral 
sciences as well as in the physical, practice in iirodnction shall 
supplement the reception of information. The man to whom 
Harvard College owes an impulse in this direction, which has 
never been lost, used to say, "If there is any one thing I 
despise more than another, it is information." Another man, 
who is now giving his life towards stamping upon a great 
American university this character of independent, original 
investigation, said to me, " Our young men make a mistake 
in not writing. What if their productions are immature? 
They are at least production, and their very immaturity will 
be of service in pointing the way to better things." 

What the laboratory is to physical science, that the lil>rary 
must be to moral science. The lilirary must become, not a 
store-house of book-s, but a place for work. Books must 



60 HIGHER HISTORICAL INSTRUCTION. 

exist not so much to be read as to be studied, compared, 
digested, made to serve in tiie development of new truth by 
the method of practice with tliem. One unfamiliar with 
student life would be surprised at the unwillingness to use 
other books than those presented by their instructors. Num- 
bers of students pass through college without knowing how 
to consult the library catalogue. Iustri:ction by means of 
text-books, even with wide suggestion of collateral reading, 
can bring a student into relation with but lew minds, can 
give him almost no power of getting out of books the mate- 
rial wanted for a given purpose. The practice-course alone, 
calling upon a student to use dozens of books, though prob- 
ably never to read one, must go far toward giving him right 
ideas about their value. He sees how men before him have 
gone to work, and his inevitable loss of faith in the infalli- 
bility of printing may be counted as his greatest gain. 

The danger pointed out in Germany, that a wholly practi- 
cal method must lead to a loss in breadth and vigor of grasp 
upon the whole broad subject of history, is one we are not 
likely to fall into. Our danger lies rather in the opposite 
direction, and it is from this danger that we must look to 
the practice-course to relieve us. M. Fr^d^ricq laments the 
entire absence of practice-courses in Belgium. We are some- 
what better off than that. Johns Hopkins is not the only 
American university which has taken a step in the right 
direction. In all, perhaps a half-dozen have done some- 
thing already, so that it seems not without reason to hope 
that before very long every historical professor in America 
will consider his practice-course as much an essential to suc- 
cessful work as his lecture or recitation. 



On Methods of Teaching Political Economy. 



By Richard T. Ely, Johns Hopkins University. 



IT is easy to compress into the compass of a single sen- 
tence all the information needed to qualify any man of fair 
native abiUty and liberal education to teach political economy 
as it was taught ciglit years ago in one of the proudest 
institutions in the United States. The information in ques- 
tion is this: Buy Mrs. Fawcett's "Political Economy for 
Beginners" ; see that your pupils do the same; then assign 
them once a week a chapter to he learned ; finally, question 
them each week on the chapter assigned the week before, 
using the questions found at the end of the chapter, and 
not omitting the puzzles which follow the more formal ques- 
tions ; as it is a test of the academical learning and grasp of 
economic science of a senior to have a puzzling problem 
like this hurled at him : "Is the air in a diving-bell wealth ; 
and, if so, why?" 

Let no one suppose this description satirical or exag- 
gerated. It is tlie literal truth ; and the hour a week for a 
part of a year of such instruction was absolutely all the 
teaching of political economy done in any department of the 
rich and powerful college. It is scarcely necessary to de- 
scribe the state in Avhich the students' minds Avere left. 
They learned by heart a few truisms, as, e.g., that it is a 



62 ON METHODS OF TEACHING 

good thing to be honest, diUgeut, and fruga,! ; that products 
are divided between capitalists, kxborers, and landlords ; and 
that values being defined as certain relations of things to 
one another, there cannot be a general rise or a general fall 
in values ; and they acquired an imperfect comprehension 
of certain great fundamental facts, like the Ricardiau theory 
of rent and the Malthusian doctrine of population. This, 
with not a very high opinion of political economy, was the 
sum-total of results for the student, and prepared him for 
the degree of A.B. first, and afterward for that of A.M. 
In our national banks we have a wonderful and unique 
economic institution, but they were not once mentioned, nor 
was a single allusion made to the financial history of this 
gi'eat country. And yet this instruction was to fit the elite 
of the youth of the land for the duties of citizenship ! 

This is a true picture of one way to teach political econ- 
omy, and it is a method of instruction for which a high 
salary was paid. Is it a state of things entirely exceptional? 
It is to be feared not. A preface to Amasa Walker's 
" Science of Wealth," edited 1872, contains these words, 
which seem to have met with very general approbation : 
"Although desirable that the instructor should be familiar 
with the subject himself, it is by no means indispensable. 
With a well-arranged text-book in the hands of both teacher 
and pupil, with suitable effort on the part of the former 
and attention on the part of the latter, the study may be 
profitably pursued. We have known many instances 
where this has been done in colleges and other institutions 
highly to the satisfaction and advantage of all parties 
concerned." 

The writer holds that better things than this are possible, 
even in a high school ; and it is certain that political econ- 
omy ought to be taught in every school of advanced grade 



POLITICAL ECONOMY. 63 

in the land.i The difficulties are by uo means insuperable. 
It is, in fact, easy to interest young people in economic 
discussions which keep close to the concrete, and ascend 
only gradually from particulars to generals. 

The writer has indeed found it> possible to entertain a 
school-room full of boys, varying in age from five to sixteen, 
with a discourse on two definitions of capital, — one taken 
from a celebrated writer, and the other from an obscure 
pamphlet on socialism by a radical reformer. As the school 
was in the country, illustrations were taken from farm life, 
such as coriyplanting and harvesting, and from the out-door 
sports of the boys, such as trapping for rabbits. Some 
common familiar fact was kept constantly in the foreground, 
and thus the attention of the youngest lad was held. 

Perhaps money is as good a subject as any for an opening 
lecture to bright boys and girls, and the writer would recom- 
mend a course of procedure somewhat like this : Take into 
the class-room the different kinds of money in use in the 
United States, both paper and coin, and ask questions about 
them, and talk about them. Show the class a greenback and 
a national bank-note, and ask them to tell you the difference. 
After they have all failed, as they probably will, ask some 
one to read what is engraved on the notes, after which the 
difference may be further elucidated. Silver and gold cer- 
tificates may be discussed, and the distinction made clear 
l)etween the bullion and face value of the five-cent piece, etc. 
Other talks, interesting and familiar, about alloys, the extent 
to which i)ennies and small coins are legal tender, the char- 

1 In Belgium it has been proposed to introduce political economy even 
into the elementary schools; and in view of the immense importance of the 
economic problems which will one day be pressing for solution in the 
United States, it is to be hoped that such a proposal at some future time 
will not be Utopian in our country. 



64 ON METHODS OF TEACHING 

iicter of the triulc-dollar, etc., etc., will occupy several hours, 
and delight the class. ^ The origin of money is a topic which 
will instruct and entertain the scholars for an hour. Various 
kinds of mone}' should be mentioned ; and it is possible you 
may find examples of curious kinds of money in some hill 
town not very remote, e.g., eggs, and you are very likely to find 
several kinds of money in use among the boys and girls, e.g., 
pins. In one boarding-school, near Baltimore, bits of butter, 
served the boys at meals in quantities less than they desired, 
passed as money, and quite an extensive use of bills and 
orders, " negotiable instruments," was established." After 
this, a work like Jevons's "Money and the Mechanism of 
Exchange,"^ or at least parts of it, will interest the pupils. 

Banking very properly comes under the head of political 
economy, performing as it does most important functions in 
industrial life ; and the most prominent bankiug institutions 
in this country are the national banks, which have also played 
an important r61e in oiu" history. There is likely to be one 
in every town where there is a high school, and it is well to 
continue the course of instruction with the village national 



1 The teacher will find the necessary information in the Revised Stat- 
utes of the United States (Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.), 
which should he in the school lihrary. It is contained in more convenient 
shape in the " Laws of the United States relating to Loans and the Cur- 
rency " and "Instructions and Regulations in Relation to the Transaction 
of Business at the Mints and Assay Offices of the United States." These 
pamphlets, like most other government puhlications, can be obtained gratis 
of the congressman of the district in which the school is situated. They 
are kept on sale by various book-dealers in AVashington. 

2 Cf. ]Mr. John Johnston's instructive paper, "Rudimentary Society 
among Boys," published in the "Johns Hopkins University Studies in 
Historical and Political Sciences," second series, No. XL, edited by Dr. 
Herbert 15. Adams. 

^ This is published iu paper covers in the Humboldt Library for forty 
rents, a^ >vell as iu the " luternatiowal Scieytilio Seriey " of D. Appleton & Co. 



POLITICAL ECONOMY, 65 

bank. Procure for this purpose "The National Bank Act,"^ 
and study it with your class in connectiou with reports and 
advertisements and circulars of the village bank. You will 
find a certain minimum number of directors prescribed by 
law : ascertain the number in the bank in question, and their 
functions. Some members of the class will be acquainted 
with them, and all the class will know of them, and this will 
give a personal interest to the study. Then compare the 
amount of capital required with the actual amount, and have 
the class ascertain from the law the amount of bank-notes 
which the bank could receive from the comptroller of the 
currency, and the actual circulation. After the various feat- 
ures of the bank have been examined, it is desirable that 
some bright boy should write a history of the bank, to read 
before the class, and afterwards, perhaps, to publish in the 
village paper. Files of the paper, to which the editor will 
doubtless give access, will contain all the published reports 
of the bank, as well as the proceedings and the village talk 
about the bank at its foundation. If officers of the bank are 
properly approached, they will assist with hints and informa- 
tion. In this way the pupils will acquire a new interest in 
banks ; and when they pass by the national bank, it will never 
again seem quite the same lifeless institution. From the 
history of one national bank it is easy to pass over to the 
history of national banks in this country, and to a descrip- 
tion of the State banking systems, which preceded the 
national banking system.- Then the student may be glad 
to read what General Walker savs on banks, in his ^ Politi- 



1 A government publication ; also published by the Homans Publishing 
Company, 251 Broadway. Care should be taken to secure the latest edition, 
as there have been various changes in the banking laws. 

- For this purpose the teacher should consult the reports of the comp- 
troller of the currency, especially for the years 1875 and 187G. 



66 ON METHODS OF TEACHING 

cal p]conom\>" Jind in his "Money, Trade, and Industry,"' 
and a work like Bagehot's "-Lombard Street" will not be 
without attractions.^' 

Taxes can be studied in the town or village. The pupils 
can learn from their fathers what the taxes arc, how they 
are assessed and collected, and what part of the revenues is 
used for village purposes, what part for schools, what part 
for the county, and what part for the State. In any vil- 
lage it cannot be difficult to induce one of the assessors to 
explain before the class in political economy the jirinciples 
upon which he does his work. All the pupils can then write 
essays about taxation in the said place, and perhai)s one of 
them will be able to write a financial history of the town. 
In this way the pupils will be prepared for the perusal of a 
work like the " Report on Local Taxation," prepared by 
Messrs. Wells, Dodge, and Cuyler.'^ It may be learned from 
the reports of the Secretary of the Treasury^ how the ex- 
penses of the federal government are defrayed. In this way 
a complete view of taxation in the United States is ob- 
tained, ■' and in many res[)ects a small town or village offers 
better facilities for such a course than a large city, where 
manners are less simple, and where city officials for well- 
known reasons often show a manifest unwillingness to impart 
information. This course will teach i^upils to observe eco- 
nomic phenomena, will impart to them an interest in financial 
questions, and will prepare them in later years to deal with 
large problems. As Carl Ritter prepared himself for his 



1 Tublished by Henry Holt & Co., New York. 

2 Published by the Scribners, New York. 

3 Published by Harper & Brothers, New York. 

4 Goveruraent publications. 

5 The United States Census Reports contain valuable information, and 
every high school should be provided with copies. 



POLITICAL ECONOMY. . 67 

great geographical work hy the study of the geography of 
Frankfort,' so bright pupils, beginning with the study of 
local finance, will learn how to deal with even the difficult 
problems of war finance when they arise. 

The two great impelling causes of economic study have 
ever been financial difficulties of government and social 
problems, or discontent with the condition of social classes, 
coupled with a desire to improve this unsatisfactory condi- 
tion, and it is with these two kinds of topics that political 
economy chiefly deals. In a manner similar in principle 
to that described, the administration of public charity and 
its relation to private charity may be studied in the town 
and county. If poorhouses, insane asylums, hospitals, etc., 
are in the vicinity, and can be visited, so much the better. 
The manner of caring for the criminal chisses may be studied 
locally. Reports of State boards of charities will enable 
the pupils to connect local with State charities." 

Then there is the ordinary laborer. Let the pupils de- 
scribe his manner of living, his wages, etc. If the school 
is a mixed one, some young girl of sufficient tact will be 
found to visit the ordinary' laborers in their homes, to talk 
with them, and obtain their ideas. In some towns a real 
laboring population can scarcely be said to exist ; but factory 
towns afford favorable opportunities for studies of this 
character. Many a Massachusetts factory town furnishes an 
excellent field for such study, and the reports of the Massa- 
chusetts Bureau of Labor Statistics will be found helpful. 



1 This illustration is taken from Dr. Adams's paper, v. p. 161 of first 
edition. 

- Teachers and pupils will find much useful information in the large 
work of Dr. Wines, entitled ' ' The State of Prisons and of Child-Saving 
Institutions in the Civilized World," Cambridge (Mass.), 1880. 



68 ON METHODS OF TEACHING 

A book like "Work and Wages," by Tliorokl Rogers,^ will 
then be enjoyed by many of the class.^ 

After part or all of this ground has been gone over, it will 
then be time to take up the more systematic study of politi- 
cal economy. The work described might be gone over in 
exercises once a week, extending through one year, and the 
second year a systematic course might follow ; and this is 
not too much time for so all-important a study in a higli 
school. There are few good text-books of political economy, 
but for the English-speaking student the writer would rec- 
ommend Francis A. Wallcer's " Pohtioal Economy," or Lave- 
leye's "Elements of Political Economy," with additions l)y 
Taussig.^ Here is an admiraljle high-school course sketched 
out. All the works referred to ought to be accessible to the 
teacher^ and should he mastered before he begins to teach.'* 
This may seem like requiring a great deal ; but preparation 
is as necessary in a teacher of political economy as in a 
teacher of mathematics ; and it is as absurd to venture to 
teach political economy, without a knowledge of the subject, 
as to teach trigonometry without a knowledge of trigonome- 
try. It is because this has been attempted that such con- 
tempt has been thrown on the study of political economy, 
and that the science is in such a sad condition. 



1 Published by G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York. 

2 In his "French and German Socialism" (Harper & Brothers), the 
writer has attempted to give a brief sketch of the more prominent Utopian 
theories in a manner adapted to school and college use. Albert Shaw has 
described admirably an American communistic society in his "Icaria: A 
Chapter in the History of Communism." Published by G. P. Putnam's Sons. 

3 If there is sufficient time, "Walker's larger work is preferable; if less 
time can be devoted to the study, Laveleye's is better. The teacher should 
have both. Laveleye's " Political Economy " is published by the Putnams, 
New York. 

4 Let one who proposes to teach political economy master, Urst of all. 
F. A. Walker's "Political Economy.'' 



POLITICAL ECONOMY. 69 

For a more advanced course, a preliminary training in 
logic is advisable, as the discussion of deductive and in- 
ductive methods, of conceptions and definitions, etc., will 
otherwise hardly be intelligible. ^ Besides this, the training 
one obtains in the study of logic is excellent preparation for 
much of the work required in political economy. It teaches 
students to analyze conceptions, to combine elements, and 
to reason closely. The writer has often felt that a want of 
this training in his pupils was an obstacle in his way. 

The more profound one's knowledge of history the better 
for teacher in high school or college. This economic life, this 
working, buying, selling, this getting a living, is only one part 
of the historical life of a people ; and the more that is known 
about the whole, the better will each part be understood. 

For the advanced uivestigation, a knowledge of foreign 
languages, especially of German, is indispensable. Roscher,- 
Wagner,^ Knies,* Schmoller/ Schonberg,^ and Leroy-Beaulieu^ 
should be studied. 

Colleges and universities ought also to provide periodicals 
like the " Jahrbiicher f lir Nationalokonomie und Statistik," 
" Jahrbuch fiir Gesetzgebung, Verwaltung und Volkswirth- 
schaft," the "Tiibinger Zeitschrift fiir die Gesammte Staats- 
wissenchaft," the "Journal des Economistes," the P^nglish 
"Economist," '•Bradstreets," and the "Banker's Magazine." 



1 The two little works by Thomas Fowler, "Deductive Logic " and " In- 
ductive Logic," xjublished in the Clarendon Press Series, Oxford, are 
recommended. 

2 System der Volkswirthschaft. 

3 Lehrbuch der politischen Oekonomie. 

* Die politische Oekonomie vom geschichtlichen Standbuhkte, and his 
" Geld und Credit." 

5 Ueber einige Grundfragen des Rechts und der Volkswirthschaft. 

6 Handbuch der politischen Oekonomie. 
■^ Traite de la science des finances. 



70 ON METHODS OF TEACHING 

The teacher of college students, who ought always him- 
self to be an original worker, should he pe7'fecth/ independCent. 
It is doubtless owing largely to a lack of independence on 
the part of the teacher that political economy has not made 
more progress in this country. Men are too often employed 
to teach free trade or to teacli protection^ — and as nsvully 
taught, it is difficult to tell ivhich of the two is more unscientific, 
— or to teach Henry C. Carey's system,, or teach tnonometallism 
or bimetallism, tohereas the teacher should be encouraged in 
the 2^ursriit of truth, regardless of where it strikes. 

Independence is nowhere more necessary than in the study 
of economies. A new theory of the iota subscript does not 
move the mass of men profoundly, but a new tlieory of taxa- 
tion is bound to call forth from some one the cry " heresy." 
In fact, as there are always large and powerful classes in- 
terested in the present condition of things, every cliange 
proposed, no matter what it is, is certain t(j meet with a 
storm of opposition. Ignorance, prejudice, and selfishness 
have always combined in their attacks on every political 
economist who has contriliuted to the advance of his science. 

Tlie political economist requires likewise, if lie is to do liis 
best work, a salary which shall enal)le him to mingle with 
the world, to become, to a certain extent, a man of tlie 
world, in order that lie may the lietter understand tlie world 
witli whicli lie deals. He ouglit further to l)e able to travel 
and conduct investigations in industrial regions at home 
and abroad. So important is travel, indeed, that one great 
French school, that of Le Play, has made travel the chief 
method of investigation.^ 

1 The following note on Le Play may be interesting in this connection: 
In 1820 Le Play began a series of journeys, which continued for over fifty 
years, and extended themselves into all parts of Europe, and even into the 
regions of Asiatic semi-civilization. These travels have borne plenteous 



POLITICAL ECONOMY. 71 

The thoroughly equipped teacher of political economy 
ought, in addition to his qualifications in history and philos- 
ophy, including chiefly logic, to be a careful student of the 
principles of law. Evidence and practice, and the formal 
details of law, are not of great importance to him ; but real- 
estate law, the law of contract and of banking, etc., are. 
The political economist lays the basis for legal study, he 
tells the reason why such and such legal institutions, e.g., 
private property in land, exist, and should exist ; but he can 
manifestly lay a nuich better basis if he knows the superstruc- 
ture which is to be erected thereon.^ 

A legal friend, at the same time a political economist, 
recommends the following course in law for advanced stu- 
dents of political economy : " Blackstone's Commentaries,"^ 

fruits, of which the most prominent are the folloM'ing: the publication of 
numerous works, tlie estahlislimeut of a nietliod of study in social science, 
and the foundation of a school. Le Play's method, which he calls " La 
Methode social,'' centres in what maybe called the doctrine of travel. The 
quintessence of his theory is, that it is as essential for the economist to 
observe economic phenomena as for the mineralogist to observe minerals. 
The economist, however, not being able to gather together and arrange in a 
laboratory manufactories, laborers' quarters in cities, agricultural villages, 
extensive mines, and the commercial phenomena of a great port, must 
travel to them, observe the manifestations of social and individual life 
which are there to be seen, and classify the results thus obtained in such 
manner that instructive and useful generalization niay be drawn there- 
from. The most imxiortant among the woi-ks of I^e Play bears the title 
"les Ouvriers Europcens," in which the author describes from actual obser- 
vation the minutest details of separate laborers' households in every part 
of Euro2>e. The third service to science, which these journeys enabled 
Le Play to render, consists in the foundation of a school, called ' ' L'Ecole de 
laPaix Sociale," which manifests its activity in various ways, of which the 
most striking is the publication of their semi-monthly organ, " La Reforme 
Sociale." 

1 In many German universities every law-student is obliged to take a 
course in political economy. The study of political economy is likewise 
obligatory in French law-schools. 

- Chase's edition is one volume. 



72 ON METHODS OF TEACHING TOLITICAL ECONOMY. 

which should be thoroughly digested; Parson on "Con- 
tracts " ; "Washburn on " Real Estate," Benjamin on " Sales 
of Personal Property," and Bispham on " Equity." I would 
add, at least, Morse on "Banks and Banking," Cooley on 
" Taxation." and Morawetz on " Corporations." 

Only one point more remains to be mentioned. The best 
original economic work is, for the most part, expensive. 
Laws, government reports, as blue-books and financial 
statements, and all sorts of original documents are required. 
Much economic work can be done only in connection with a 
learned institution or a government office, or by a very 
wealthy person. Any university which would have good 
work on the part of its teachers of political economy must 
not begrudge the expense of material as necessary to the 
economist as chemicals to the chemist. Of course, it cannot 
be expected that an American college will provide the poli- 
tical economist with a special library of seventy thousand 
volumes, like the Library of the Prussian Statistical Bureau ; 
but it is doubtful whether a fair working university library 
of political economy can be produced for less than five 
thousand dollars.^ 



1 It will readily be understood that a university library, designed to aid 
original research, is something quite different from a high-school library. 
One hundred dollars would purchase economic books which would answer 
fairly Avell the needs of a high school. 



Historical Instruction in the Course of 

History and Political Science at 

Cornell University. 



By Andrew D. White, Cornell University. 



THE theory and practice of historical instruction in Cor- 
nell Universit}' may be outlined as follows : — 

1 . The basis of historical study among university students 
is to be found in the necessities of their general development 
as men, and of their special development as citizens prepar- 
ing to take positions of influence among the civilizing activi- 
ties of their land and time. 

2. As to the general system upon which a course extending 
through four years is conducted, the first step is to enable the 
student to secure some adequate general knowledge of the 
simpler fundamental facts in that evolution of man and of 
society in the past wliich best aids in solving the problems 
regarding the evolution of both in the future. This is done, 
as regards ancient history, by a rapid survey of the main 
ancient nations ; as regards mediaeval histor}*, by a stud}' 
of the general transition from the ancient to the mediaeval 
period, and of the more important and fruitful elements, 
institutions, and men developed in mediaeval life ; as regards 
modern history, by a study of the ti-ansition from the medi- 
feval to the modern period in leading modern nations, and 



74 HISTORY AND POLITICAL SCIENCE 

especifilh' by attention to the movements, phases of thought 
and action, institutions, epochs, and men in these which 
throw most light on the evolution of existing society. 

3. As to special work, having in view the education of 
the student as a man and citizen, there naturally comes next 
the more careful study of such nations, epochs, movements, 
systems, phases, or tendencies as bear most directly on the 
world of thought and action in which the student is to live 
and move and have his being. These subjects for special 
study are frequenth' found in ancient, medi;\^val, or general 
modern history-, l)ut students are especially encouraged to 
devote their most careful labor to subjects which have to do 
most directly with thought and action in their own country. 

4. As to the practical plan pursued, the general knowledge 
of ancient and mediaeval history, and of the history of Eng- 
land, — considered as a typical example of a great modern 
state, — is given in the lower classes by text-books, with 
supplementary- lectures by the resident professors, and 
occasional courses of lectui'es by others. This elementary 
knowledge is afterward developed in the advanced classes 
by various courses of lectures upon the more important 
nations and periods, supplemented by recommendations as 
to the examination of authorities and general reading, and 
by " seminar}' exercises" calculated to increase the famil- 
iarity of students with important sources, and to stimulate 
their investigation of these. 

5. As to methods of teaching, it is taken for granted that 
the student must be directly interested in his work, and that 
he is not to be considered a passive recipient of facts and 
ideas flung at him by his instructors. Efforts are constantly 
made to trace back important events and institutions through 
the various stages of their development, and to make sug- 
gestive comparisons between different phases of progress 



AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY. 75 

in the same nation, and between similar phases in (hff'erent 
nations. In general modern history and in American his- 
tory-, while pains is taken to present the framework and 
connections historically, the filling-in is largel}' biographi- 
cal. It is lielieved that historj- is thus more surely made 
living aud real, that the development of principles and 
events is more firmly planted into the thinking of stu- 
dents, and that the ethical content of events may be 
grasped as it can be in no other way. 

6. The importance of leading the student to make indi- 
vidual investigation into original sources is fuU}^ recognized ; 
but it is felt that such special investigations are likely to be 
narrow and poor, in fact, to be simply those of an attorney's 
clerk preparing a case, unless there has been some large pre- 
liminary study of human events, and some good philosophical 
conception of the values and relations of these ; that to pro- 
mote special investigation among young men not matured by 
broad historical studies, and by thought upon these, is simply 
to train up annalists or historical special pleaders. To 
guard against this danger, it is thought best to advise, first, 
that such individual investigations be made as a rule in the 
latter years of the course ; and, secondly, that they be made 
upon points of permanent and direct interest in the history 
with which American citizens have most directly to do ; 
more especially in the constitutional history of England, and 
in the general, political, and constitutional history of the 
United States. 

7. During the entire course of four years efforts are made 
to keep up the interest of the student, and to increase his 
power of looking upon historical events and developments 
from various points of view. It is for this reason that such 
special lecturers as Goldwin Smith, James Anthony Fronde, 
Hermann von Hoist, Edward A. Freeman, George W. 



76 HISTORY AND POLITICAL SCIENCE. 

Greene, Charles Kendall Adams, and others have at various 
times been called to supplement the work of the resident 
professors. 

8. Instruction in political science, international law, and 
the great literatures, ancient and modern, is brought as far as 
possible into connection with historical study. As to litera- 
ture, courses of general reading are suggested which shall 
aid in making history a living study, and not a mere 
" swallowing of formulas." 

9. As to the philosophy of history, efforts are made from 
the first to stimulate the student to find in the progress of 
the world's affairs philosophical principles and underlying 
laws, and toward the end of the course a special series of 
lectures on the subject is delivered for the benefit of those 
thus matured in general and special historical work. 

10. To sum up as regards the connection of theory with 
method, the effort is, first, to proceed from the simple to the 
complex by the survey of single nations in ancient history 
and single elements in medieval history before taking up 
with more minuteness the complicated history of the modern 
world ; and, in modern history, to study nations and even 
individuals separately before grouping all together ; secondly, 
to proceed from the concrete to the abstract by a large use 
of the biographical method before presenting extended 
chains of historical events ; and, thirdly, to proceed from the 
empirical to the rational by encouraging students to draw 
philosoi)hical principles out of events before any connected 
discussion upon the philosophy of history is given as a whole. 



Advice to an Inexperienced Teacher of 
History. 



By W. C. Collar, A.M., Head Master of Roxiujry Latin School. 

YOU coutempla,te j-our task with a kind of despairing 
shudder, and it is not strange. If we except the in- 
structors in a relatively small number of city high schools, 
the American teacher who is a college graduate is supposed 
to be equipped for instructing in most branches of human 
knowledge, or, to speak guardedly, at least in languages, 
ancient and modern, physical and natural science, mathe- 
matics, history, and English literature. 

History has been with you a favorite pastime rather than 
a subject of severe, absorbing, protracted study. You have 
read a good number of standard histories of ancient and mod- 
ern times without attempting to make a careful and minute 
study of any one nation or period, and this you rightly feel 
is a very slender preparation for the weighty responsibilities 
that you are now to assume. For you have not to teach a 
definite portion of a well-defined subject in accordance with 
tried and accepted methods, or even under the guidance of 
certain established principles of historical instruction. The 
teaching of history has hardly yet reached the scientific stage. 
Both the What and the How are to be largely of your own 
invention. The subject itself is vast. It opens in many 
and far-reaching vistas that lose themselves in a tortuous 
complexity. Where is a clue to be found? Evidently time, 
reading, observation, experiment, reflection, judgment will 
all be needed. 



78 ADVICE TO AN INEXPERIENCED 

Then what of the class of minds to be taught? For in- 
struction must be adapted to the condition and needs of 
your pu})iLs, or it will count for little. It is said that " the 
German pupil at the age of fifteen or sixteen has been able 
to complete tw"0 distinct surv^eys of universal history." It 
will not 1)0 safe to assume any such amount of knowledge 
and training in the case of high-school scholars of that age 
with us. Their acquaintance with history is most likely 
limited to a meagre outline of facts in English history-, and 
such a knowledge of United States' history as may be got 
from the study of a manual like Anderson's or Berard's. 
It is hardly necessary to say that the imagination has not 
probabl}' been cultivated by their contact with history, still 
less have they any dcAcloped historical sense, any notion 
of the eontinuit}' of history, and most likely no love whatever 
of historical reading. It is fortunate if the}' do not think of 
history as a mere collection of dry facts, without interest or 
significance, — a dreary, barren study, to be cast aside and 
done with as soon as possible. How often does one hear from 
children the exclamation, " Oh ! I hate history ! " Or from 
grown persons, " I never could get interested in history." 

Finally, account must be taken of the school time allotted 
to history. This reveals perhaps the most discouraging 
feature of all. I have found three hours a week for a year 
too little time for Greek and Roman history alone ; but that, 
I am sure, would seem in most high schools a liberal, if not 
excessive, allowance of time for a much Avider range. The 
statement made in another essay in this volume, that 
"In America, history is generally crowded into one or two 
terms, or at most into a single year," is probably within the 
mark. 

Such, then, are some of the conditions under which you 
must work. A consciousness of inadequate preparation, 



TEACHER OF HISTOKY. 79 

insufficient time, and pupils without liistorical training. The 
situation is not exhilarating ; but neither is it without hope. 
Certainly it is of the utmost importance first to appreciate 
clearly under what limitations one must work, and then to 
conceive definitely the kind and amount of work to be done. 
To supply your own lack of knowledge and training will be 
the slow task of years ; but nothing is so satisfying and 
stimulating as the consciousness of progress. This is the 
one of the conditions enumerated that it lies in your own 
power to change, and you may be sure that on the increasing 
depth and fulness and freshness of your own knowledge will 
depend in large measure the interest and progress of your 
pupils, that is, the power and success of your instruction, and 
accordingly your own satisfaction in your work. 

Let us suppose the subject of ancient history is assigned 
to you. Tlie field is immense, and the time is absurdly in- 
adequate. But it is only the Hebrews, the Greeks, and the 
Romans, whose history and literatures are of great interest 
and importance to us ; and many as are the points of con- 
tact of these nations with Egypt, Phoinicia, Assj'ria, Persia, 
and a few other oriental peoples, some incidental notice only 
of these relations will suffice. Thus, the area is at once greatly 
circumscribed. And even Hebrew histor}- must not be per- 
mitted to occupy a relatively large place ; partly because a 
considerable portion of it is not important ; partly because 
what is of the greatest value to us requires, for its compre- 
hension and appreciation, a degree of mental training and 
maturity. The Hebrews have transmitted to us their con- 
ceptions of God, of religion, and of moralit}'. Their thoughts, 
beliefs, aspirations, emotions, have entered into our inmost 
being, and constantly affect our outward life and conduct. 
Their ecstasy of joy, of triumph, of hope ; their passion of 
remorse, of sorrow, of despair, have been embalmed in our 



80 ADVICE TO AN INEXPERIENCED 

sacred music, and hallowed by the most tender and solemn 
associations of religion. Their language and their imag- 
erj' have permeated our literature and color our daily speech. 
But it would be vain to attempt to show a class of begin- 
ners the immensit}' of the influence for good, and likewise 
for evil, that has been wrought upon us through the ages, by 
the faith, the ethics, the laws, the literature of that strange 
people. Of these things, a partial, fragmentary, or even 
incidental treatment must suffice. 

But to be more precise. As a basis for such instruction, 
as circumstances allow, it is enough to read with a class, 
first, the life and work of Moses, contained in the first twenty- 
four chapters of Exodus, and the first three and the thirty- 
fourtli chapters of Deuteronomy' ; second, the first eleven 
chapters of Joshua ; and, finally, the life of David. 

It is necessary to assume some familiarity with Bible 
stories ; though how so many intelligent boj's and girls, 
accustomed to attendance at Sunday-schools, grow up with- 
out such familiar knowledge is something of a mystery. The 
discovery, some years ago, that in a class of thirty bright 
boys of about fourteen years of age, only three understood 
an allusion to the story of Ruth and Boaz, led to mj- laying 
out a course of Bible reading in my own school for each year 
of a six years' curriculum. 

Thus far, we have considered the nature and scope of your 
work, and have pointed out some of the limitations imposed 
by circumstances for which you are not responsible, but which 
3'ou must not disregard. It is time to speak of the method 
of teaching. But the method must be determined in the 
main by the object aimed at. If the object is to deposit 
in the mind the greatest number possible of historical facts, 
there is perhaps no better way than to confine the instruc- 
tion to drill upon the contents of a manual by question and 



TEACHEE, OF HISTOllY. 81 

answer, with frequent examinations in writing. Such a method 
would probably be effective in two ways : it would give learners 
positive knowledge, or the semblance of it, and it would pretty 
certainly make them hate history. I do not hesitate to say 
that the ultimate purpose of school instruction should be to 
incite an interest in histor}-, and to create a love for historical 
reading. If this is a correct view, it gives the key to right 
methods ; and, from other essays in this volume, j'ou will 
gather man 3^ useful suggestions. Only consider well what 
hints you can use. Remember that your task is not that of 
a college professor. It is veiy different, and it is much more 
difficult. Therefore, many excellent methods described by 
eminent teachers of history in the preceding essays 3'ou may 
be unable to put in practice. You have to deal with minds 
less mature and less capable of independent study ; and you 
cannot probabl}- send your pupils to a well-furnished librarj' 
for reading and research. Perhaps what is contained in this 
volume, in answer to the question "How shall history be 
taught?" is most directly helpful. Let me try to add some 
suggestions derived from my own experience. 

I will suppose that your pupils have some brief manual of 
Roman or Greek history, like " Creighton's Primer of Roman 
History," or " Smith's Smaller History of Greece." First read 
over the lesson assigned for the next day, or portions of it, with 
the class ; indicate briefly what is of greater and what of less 
importance ; make such explanations as are needful for an 
intelligent comprehension of the text, and indicate what 
dates should be committed to memor}-. 

A word may be here most conveniently said on the sub- 
ject of chronolog}-. A few dates should be well fixed in the 
memory ; they should be carefull}' selected by the teacher, 
and some explanation given of their significance. But " a 
few," you will say, is a little indefinite. Of course, opinions 



82 ADVICE TO AN INEXPERIENCED 

will diffei- as to the number of indispensable dates in any 
liistoiy, though there might be a general assent to the prin- 
ciple of requiring the pupil to commit as few as possible. 
Of the two hundred and fifty dates given in " Smith's Smaller 
History of Greece," I insist on fifteen, and I think the 
number miwht be reduced to ten. But if learners are prop- 
erly taught, they will, of course, be able to determine a great 
many dates approximately. For example, a boy who has 
clearly understood the cause, purpose, and results of the 
Confederacy of Delos could not possibly place it in time far 
wrong, with reference to great events before and after it ; 
and a single important date in the century well remembered 
would enable him to fix ver^' nearly its absolute time. 

Remembering that you must make history interesting, to 
that end use all available means to produce vivid impressions. 
This is a trite remark, but it will bear repeating. Casts, 
models, coins, photographs, relief maps, ma}' not be at your 
command ; but maps of some sort 3'ou must have. Historical 
instruction, without the constant accompaniment of geography, 
has no solid foundation, — "is all in the air." The imagination 
must be stirred ; the sympathies must be quickened. How ? 
I answer, first, by drawing with judgment from your own stores 
of knowledge. An interesting, but perhaps not historically 
important, incident is merely alluded to, or not mentioned at 
all in the manual used by the class. Tell the story in all 
its details. You might read it in a form more perfect from 
a literary point of view, but you ought to be able to tell it 
in a way far more impressive, and that is the main thing. 
For events of a different class, I should, following sugges- 
tions more than once made in this volume, read from original, 
and, if possible, from contemporary records. What a vivid 
idea, for instance, will be got of the plague at Athens from 
the reading of a few pages from "Thucydides," with a word 



TEACHER OF HISTORY. 83 

or two added from modern medical studies of that scourge. 
The opportunity and tlie advantage of studying history from 
original documents is one strong reason why I have advised 
the study of a small portion of Hebrew history, though I am 
not ignorant what modern criticism has established regarding 
the age and authorship of those writings. It is not necessary, 
however, to communicate to a class knowledge for which they 
are not prepared. 

But for awakening the sympathies and moving the imagi- 
nation of children, I attach greater importance to the aid to 
be derived from imaginative literature, particularly poetry. 
Poetry gives life and reality to history. History describes, 
poetry paints ; and this is often true of poetrj' that ranks 
neither in the tirst nor in the second order. For j'ears I 
have found it very useful to have Macaulay's " La3-s of 
Ancient Rome " read in connection with the mythical part 
of Roman History. There is nothing like the magic charm, 
whether of sublimity or pathos, that poetry lends to historical 
events, persons, and places. Who can read Milman's mag- 
nificent ode on the Israelites crossing the Red Sea without 
a consciousness, if he reflects upon it, of a fresh and more 
vivid realization of a scene familiar to his imagination from 
childhood? How Scott's beautiful hymn, sung by Rebecca 
in "Ivanhoe," makes us see, as the Scripture narrative never 
did, tlie slow onward toiling of the Israelites through the 
rocky fastnesses and over the sandy deserts of Arabia, guided 
by the pillar of cloud by day and the pillar of fire by night ! 

At the distance of forty years I recall the emotion, the 
tears, with which I read in our country school reading-book 
a poem which I have never since seen, entitled " Jugurtha in 
Prison," beginning, 

" Well, is the rack prepared, the pincers heated ? " 



84 ADVICE TO AN INEXPERIENCED 

I knew nothing of Jugurtha, neither when he lived nor in 

what pjirt of the world, nor what he had done that he was to 

1)6 starved to death in prison. It is true, in this particular 

case, that if I had known what a scamp Jngurtha was, my 

sympathies for him would have been considerably less 

ardent ; but in that case they would only have been transferred 

to his brothers, whom he had so foully murdered. 

With what a swell of patriotic pride, too, did I use as a 

boy to recite, — 

"Departed spirits of the mighty dead, 
Ye that at Marathou and Leuctra bled." 

"Marathon and Leuctra" signified nothing to me. I had not 
the remotest idea who the "mighty dead" were who had 
fallen there, but I felt as if it would have been a joy to have 
shed my blood with them. 

Do not make the mistake, which I am afraid is a common 
one, of teaching the history of one ancient nation as if it 
had no relation to that of any other. To point out relations, 
to contrast and compare times, institutions, events, men, is 
one of the most delightful and most useful parts of the 
teacher's work. To encourage pupils to discover likenesses 
and differences is to promote thinking, to enlarge the mental 
horizon, to induce a habit of mind of inestimable value. 
Take, for example, the fundamental laws of the Hebrews, 
the Greeks, and the Romans ; their constitutions, which 
embodied and expressed their most striking and distinctive 
national characteristics. It would be easy to show, how on 
the one hand the Mosaic constitution, the Decalogue, aimed 
to make men moral and religious; while on the other the Greek 
and Roman constitutions sought to form men into soldiers, and 
to make them into members of a body politic. Hence the 
importance of private conduct under the one, and its relative 
unimportance under the other, with all the far-reaching 



TEACHER OF HISTORY. 85 

consequences that followed. In the study of Greek history 
a comparison of the two rival states, Athens and Sparta, in 
spirit and policy, and the tracing" of the immediate and 
remote effects on themselves and all Hellas, will not only 
impart increased interest, by bringing into clearer relief the 
essential characteristics, the heroism, the selfishness, the 
hardihood, the cruelty, the narrowness of the one, and the 
intelligence, love of knowledge and beauty, but also, alas ! 
the sensuality, levity, and weakness of the other ; but it will 
suggest many an important lesson, and will be an excellent 
preparation for the reading of modern history with a more 
intelligent observation and reflection. 

Again, how interesting is the comparison in detail of the 
growth of the Athenian constitution under Solon, Cleisthenes, 
and Pericles, with that slowh' evolved among the Romans 
after the beginning made by Servius Tnllus, by the struggle 
for two centuries between the patricians and plebeians. 
There is the same exclusive possession of political rights on 
the part of the nobles, and accordingly the same control of 
government by the few for their own benefit and pleasure ; 
the same misery, povert}', and indebtedness of the lower 
classes ; the same struggle to escape from intolerable 
burdens, and then to share equally with the more fortunate 
the rights of citizenship, that meant so much in ancient 
times ; the same shifting of the basis and condition of 
political privileges from birth to wealth, estimated, observe, 
in both cases, by the amount or income of property in land ; 
and finally the same issue, the turning of the tables, the 
ultimate predominance of the people, and the transference of 
the sceptre of power from the noble by birth to the rich. 
And can there be a more interesting lesson in histor}' than 
to continue this analogy, and trace the upward struggle of 
the common people in England? There the same contest 



»b ADVICE TO AN INEXPERIENCED 

has been going on for six hundred years ; the same forces 
are at work, and there are many signs that the same results 
will follow. 

I have anticipated in the last few sentences the only 
additional suggestion that I can now permit myself to make. 
I mean the comparison of ancient with modern history. 
According to Herbert Spencer, there is no thinking without 
a consciousness of similitude, and no knowing without a 
perception of relation, difference, and likeness. If, then, 
comparison, conscious or unconscious, is a necessary con- 
dition of knowledge, is one in danger of pressing the com- 
parative method of historical study too far? Explicit 
comparisons at every step are not necessar}-, and the strict 
limitations of time must not be forgotten. I have never 
failed to awaken interest by such comparisons, whether in the 
study of ancient or modern history-, even when the basis of 
knowledge on the part of pupils was of the slenderest. But a 
striking parallelism pointed out here and there will be enough 
to give direction to the thoughts in reading history, to lead 
pupils, as has alread}' been observed, to see and follow out 
analogies themselves, to bring home to the consciousness 
what is far away, and to recognize in what appears new and 
strange what "is known or even familiar. Let me illustrate. 

Suppose the topic for a lesson has been the Sicilian Expedi- 
tion. There is hardl}' to l^e found a more thrilling narrative 
than tliat by the great Greek historian, and the reading of 
some pages from Thucydides may well occui)y a half-hour. 
A class will hardly find in their course in ancient history so 
conspicuous an example of the utter disastrous failure of an 
important undertaking through the irresolution and incapa- 
city of a leader. Let the teacher now tell the story of the 
Peninsula Campaign of McClellan in our late Rebellion, to 
illustrate how history is repeated in events and in the 



TEACHER OF HISTORY. 87 

characters of men. Nicias was a man of upright character 
and respectable talents, but as a general cautious to timidity, 
and in a pinch incapable of coming to a decision. He was 
one of those men who are always thought to be sure to do 
great things, without its being possible to tell what inspires 
such confidence. He had the resources of the state at his 
back, and to support him the unflinching determination of 
his couutrynien to win. He was ably seconded by his 
subordinates, and he almost achieved a great success. But 
at the last moment victory slipped from his grasp, and the 
hopeless ruin of all his plans quickly followed. Such, at 
least in the opinion of many, was McClellan, and so ended 
disastrously his strategy of the spade. As the elder Nicias 
barely missed capturing Syracuse, so did the modern Nicias 
all but take Richmond. 

Again, at first, a boy or girl would not see much likeness 
in the characters of the Romans and the English. But reflec- 
tion, aided by the hints and questions of the teacher, would 
bring out a surprising number of points of resemblance, and 
it would appear that the English might be fairly called the 
Romans of the modern world. There is at bottom the same 
solidity, massiveness, and sobriety of nature. The same 
indomitable will and tenacit}' of purpose is characteristic of 
the two peoples. They are alike in their respect for woman, 
their domesticity, their love of old-fashioned ways and 
things, their arrogance, their dislike of foreigners. They 
have above all other nations a genius for law and govern- 
ment. 

Tu regere imperio populos, Romane, memento, 
Hae tibi eruut artes; pacisque imponere morem, 
Parcere subjectis, et debellare superbos. 

In many ways their defects and limitations are the same. 
The brusqueness, harshness, and indifference to the rights 



88 TO AN INEXPERIENCED TEACHER OF HISTORY. 

and feelings of others which foreigners complain of in the 
English, seem to have been traits of the Romans. Cato, 
a typical Roman, was willing that the prayer of the Achaean 
exiles should be granted that they might return to their own 
country after having languished seventeen years in prison, 
but he gave his consent in these gracious words : "Have we 
nothing better to do than to sit here all day long debating 
whether a parcel of worn-out Greeks shall be carried to their 
graves here or in Achaia?" Both are incapable of the 
highest excellence in certain forms of art. Matthew Arnold 
is fond of repeating of a large part of his countrymen, that 
they are characterized by "a defective type of religion, a 
narrow range of intellect and knowledge, a stunted sense 
of beauty, a low standard of manners." This seems to be 
equally true of the Roman Philistine, and, I imagine, true 
of a far larger part of the whole body of the Romans than of 
the English. 

Our aim has been to show how to give life and reality to 
history, and we have seen that the methods by which this 
end may be reached are also those by which the greatest 
benefits are to be derived from historical study ; I mean the 
culture of the imagination, the quickening of the sympathies, 
the elevation- of the moral nature, the forming of mental 
habits of observation, comparison, and reflection, and finally 
an increased interest in history' and general literature. 



A Plea for Aech^ological Instruction. 



By Joseph Thacher Clarke. 



''•Die Werkstdtte eines grossen Kilnstlers entwickelt den 
keimenden Philosopliien^ den keimenden Dichter, melir als der 
Ilorsacd des WeUiveisen und des Kritikers." — Letter of 
Goethe to Oeser, 1768. 

IT has long been evident that, as matters now stand, a 
living interest in classical antiquity is difficult to in- 
troduce in the studies of youth, and almost impossible to 
maintain in the bus}- life of later years. To some men of 
acknowledged intelligence it appears inadvisable to devote 
even that attention to classical attainment hitherto customary 
in our educational systems. Such complaints that the study 
of the ancient languages is not productive of adequate results 
are not new, and unfortunately are not without foundation. 

Teachers of long experience in the University' of Cam- 
bridge tell us "it is quite usual to find among advanced 
classical students so complete an absence of the feeling of 
the reality of ancient life that they will sometimes in constru- 
ing put into the mouth of one of the characters of history or 
fiction a sentiment in ludicrous disaccord with his position and 
with what might have been expected, and will do so without 
the slightest sense of incongruity." If the case elsewhere 
is otherwise, it certainly is not more favorable than with so 
great and so typical an institution. 



90 A PLEA FOR 

This absence of the feeling of 7'ecdity, this want of acquaint- 
ance with the actual circumstances of the life of the Greeks 
and Romans, touches the secret of the entire matter. We 
must admit that, in tliis regard, there is indeed the need of 
improvement, almost of a revolution, in the presentation of 
the classics to the student and to the public if these branches 
are to hold their own against the pressure brought to bear 
upon them b}' the absorbing utilitarianism of our age. 
Such an improvement can only proceed from a rejuvenation 
of philological studies by that living knowledge of antiquity 
gained by practical archaeology. A means of adapting class- 
ical instruction to the needs and tastes of present generations 
has long been sought, and has gradually become more and 
more needful. An increase of the direct study of ancient 
life, which unites the advantages of philological scholarship 
and the exact research of natural science, is the only satisfac- 
tory resort in the present emergency. Archsfiology is that 
combination of tangible acquisition with intellectual attain- 
ment which is the ideal compromise between the conflicting 
principles. Not long ago a prominent statesman spoke of 
archajology as a "great and healthgiviug " science. In this 
application it may truly bear out his curious characterization. 

It is not difficult to demonstrate that the real disease of 
modern classical instruction, — notably in our own country, 
which is entirely without archaeological study, — is this very 
want of the sense of reality, resulting from the omission of 
what Boeckh has termed the material discipline of the science 
of antiquity. The history of classical learning, during the last 
four centuries, shows clearly that, without frequent and sys- 
tematic research among the material remains of earlier life, 
the real intercourse of modern generations with antiquity 
steadily declines. The want of archaeological investigations 
during the ages succeeding the first great impulse of the 



ARCH^OLOGICAL INSTRUCTION. 91 

Renaissance, and of that intelligent iindevstanding only to be 
derived from discoveries thus made, resulted in the stagnation 
and pedantic lifelessness of all classic learning which is so 
characteristic of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. 
The promising beginning of antique research made in the 
Quatrocento, by Italian architects and travellers, — Brunel- 
leschi, Bracciolini, Squarcione, and particularly Cyriacus 
of Ancona, — did not meet with encouragement sufficient. to 
insure the position of archaeological investigations duriug the 
following ages. Even as late as the time of Millin, scholars 
did not generally recognize the fact that the study of ancient 
monuments of art is the study of one of the chief expressions 
of human genius and attainment ; did not perceive that a 
knowledge of the monuments alone could lift the veil by 
which the earlier civilizations were shrouded. 

This inability to recognize and enter into the actual life 
of the ancients led to the appearance of that great and 
3'et deplorable race of scholars who, Cyclop-like, lacked 
the eye of practical acquaintance with the material remains 
of those civilizations to whose literary vestiges they devoted 
an erudition not since surpassed. Philologists and phil- 
osophers stretched and contracted the few facts of antique 
civilization known to them until they fitted as best they 
might the Procrustean beds of their preconceived theories. 
In all branches of intellectual attainment there was a lack 
of practical knowledge which it is difficult to comprehend. 
Erasmus, besides his mother tongue, could only speak Latin, 
and did not even understand the languages of France, Italy, 
or England, althouoh he had lived Ions; in those countries. 
Duval, at the court of Francis I. of Austria, could repeat the 
names and alleged dates of all the rulers of Egypt, Greece, 
and Rome, but could not tell how many Imperial Electors 
were living, and did not even know the beautiful sisters of 



92 A PLEA FOE 

the Emperor Joseph, — who himself excused the scholar with 
the explanation: "But then my sisters are not antiques." 
Perhaps the greatest corypheus of this school of pedants 
was, however, one Hermann Conring, who wrote something 
over two hundred "opera" and " opuscula," and whose 
epitaph in the little churchyard of Helmstiidt, after enumerat- 
ing his many attainments and more titles, concludes : " mul- 
tus putes conditos? Unus est, Conringius, Saeculi Miracu- 
lum ! " But who to-da}- gives a thought to this Wonder of his 
Century, with all his learning? 

The study of the classics with these men of the schools, 
even more than with our own, was dominated by a purely 
philological and literary spirit, to the exclusion of practical, 
that is to say of archiieological and definite historical concep- 
tions. Scholars had come to regard the words of the ancients 
more than their meaning, even as style rather than matter 
still generally decides the choice of classical reading. In 
their limited minds the}- were always ready to measure the 
importance of archoeological study by the meagre informa- 
tion the}" had concerning its materials. 

One of the first effects of this misjudgment was the neglect 
and decay of the ill-arranged collections of antiques then 
existing. -The lamentable fate which befell so many of the 
Arundel marbles is a striking instance of the lack of general 
interest in archaeological studies at the time. Earl}' in the 
seventeenth centur}' the collection had been brought from the 
Cyclades to England b}' a fortunate chance ; but its value 
could not then be worthily appreciated. The influence of 
this unrivalled accession of antiques to one of the chief cen- 
tres of European thought is hardly perceptible in the intel- 
lectual life of those times. The statues and reliefs in vain 
appealed to the learned world : "Be not so blind ; we, too, 
are that Hellas which ye seek." 



ARCH^OLOGICAL INSTRUCTION, 93 

The continental museums of this period, while accumulating 
worthless curiosities and bric-a-brac of all kinds, dwindled 
in character to the discouraging cabinets of varieties which 
were the idle delight of ever}- petty potentate. There was 
no conception of the great value of such collections as indices 
of former development. A representative work of this mis- 
directed antiquarianism is Martorelli's notorious volume of 
800 quarto pages on an antique ink-stand found at Portici, 
in which bulky work there is nothing of practical importance, 
nothing definite, even in regard to antique ink-stands. 

"When a superficial knowledge of Greek antiquities or 
costume was acquired, it was onl^- to pla}- an ignoble part 
in the masquerades of Louis Quatorze. Even as late as the 
time of Gessner, in the first years of the eighteenth cen- 
tur}', these branches of learning were generally held in such 
low esteem, that he, the learned Rector of the Tliomas- 
Schule, Gottingen Professor, and President of the wisest 
existing Academy of Sciences, seriously recommended a 
study of the classics to the homines elegantes of his day ; 
that they might thereby be enabled rightl}' to comprehend 
the elaborate displays of fire-works then in vogue, and dilate 
with learned emotions before the complicated and tasteless 
structures of white-of-egg and tinsel placed by the sugar 
bakers upon the tables of the great ! 

Such was the debased state of classical instruction, which 
resulted from a neglect of that material discipline of anti- 
quity, assured by the researches of the archaeologist and by 
the practical investigations of the explorer. The rise of 
humaniora in Germany and France is due to the more just 
recognition of the unity of classical studies. 

Apart from the futility of such comparisons, no archasolo- 
gist would go so far as to maintain that the group from the 
eastern gable of the Temple of Zeus, at Olympia, is more 



94 A PLEA FOR 

majestic than a Pindaric ode ; that the Victory from Samo- 
thrace is a more spirited creation than the warlike chorus 
of Oidipons at Kolouos ; or that, for instance, the agora and 
fortifications at Assos convey a higher conception of the civic 
and military life, of Greece than do the works of Xenophon. 
But it is right to insist upon the fact that the thoughts of the 
Greek poets and historians are presented in a difficult lan- 
guage, — the full force and delicacy of which are only to be 
appreciated after years of devoted study, — while the un- 
rivalled monuments of art of that people speak directly to 
the intellect and heart of the modern observer. It would be 
wrong indeed to assert that the language of Greek architect- 
ure and sculpture, and of all other archaeological materials 
as well, speaks alike to all ; for archaeology also has its 
grammar and lexicon. Still, it remains true that its interest 
is more immediate and more accessible. 

Ever}- teacher of the classics knows how much a refer- 
ence to an antique monument, or a description d, propos of 
an otherwise obscure passage, increases the interest and 
realit}', even of the driest author. Such explanations awaken 
attention, and give that vivacity of conception so dependent 
upon the imagination. A line of Pindar or Theokritos thus 
acquires the living and picturesque value of modern verse. 
Names of things not in use to-day are met with frequently in 
the usual school authors, and may be, in fact generally are, 
mechanically translated, without conveying even the most 
vague idea of their real signification. But let the objects, 
or even an adequate representation of them, be shown to the 
class, and, thenceforth, the pupil will see in the word the 
thing itself, — its shape, color, and, above all, its character. 

Now, archaeology stands in the same relation to all antique 
literature as does the object to the word in the case referred 
to. Such brilliant discoveries upon ancient sites, as the last 



AECH^OLOGICAL INSTRUCTION. 95 

generation has witnessed, give us that feeling of the inade- 
quacy of our theoretical information, which is the greatest 
stimulant to advance. They open new and far-stretching 
regions, and may be pronounced the only specific for that 
common and most dangerous tendency of the human mind 
to form a system from a few facts accidentally known, and 
theu lapse into self-satisfied sterility. 

Another reason win- the position of archaeology should 
become important in our modern plans of study is to be 
found in the fact that, althougli political research attained 
the full perfection of its apparatus in antique fields, histo- 
rians have long been inclined to relinquish the prosecution 
of Greek and Roman history to classical, and particularly' to 
archaeological specialists, who are l)etter prepared to con- 
sider the monumental and epigraphical testimon}' afforded 
by the remains now daily brought to light. The present 
representatives of classical science cannot be too thankful 
that so many great masters of historical induction have 
bestowed upon it the comprehensiveness of their methods. 
In return for this, it now devolves upon epigraphists and 
archaeologists to increase the supply of materials for the 
determination of the political and social relations of ancient 
life. 

What better illustration of the brilliant advance of the 
wealthy cities on the Lydian and Mysian sea-board during 
the latter half of the fourth century B.C. have we than the 
appearance and peculiar transformation of Attic architecture 
and sculpture in Asia Minor during this period? And how 
could the political union of the small autocratic states to one 
world-wide dominion be exemplified and defined without an 
understanding of the art and material culture of the Hellen- 
istic and earlier Roman epochs? In view of these tasks it 
almost appears that, as Littre has said, the true end of al! 



96 A PLEA FOR 

erudition is to furnish materials for tlie science of history. 
Our age has no greater honor than the zeal with which all 
branches of learning work in concert to recover the riches 
of the past from the shadow of oblivion ; recognizing the 
intellectual physiognomy of extinct races by the traces of 
its material expression. It is by the acquirement of such 
knowledge that we are put in full possession of the attain- 
ments of previous generations, and become capable of in- 
creasing and improving this inheritance. 

In this regard, archaeology, though late, is not least in 
rank among the sister sciences. Not one furnishes to this 
grand history more varied and more solid materials, or adds 
to the picture of former greatness firmer outlines and brighter 
colors. Indeed, as a handmaid of History, Archaeology is 
more trustworthy than Literature. A monument of assured 
authenticity is the most indisputable witness to the con- 
temporary fact which it asserts. An author, on the other hand, 
may have been content to follow a groundless tradition, to 
speak on hearsay, sometimes even may have knowingly mis- 
represented the truth. Moreover, the date of a document does 
not necessarily indicate either the age or the general accept- 
ance of the fact recorded, still less of the idea which inspired 
it ; while a work of art involuntarily and unconsciously 
furnishes us with this information. The artist of a complex 
and imitative age may, it is true, attempt to mislead his gen- 
eration in regard to the spirit ©f his design. As we see, to- 
day he may even succeed with many of those before whom 
he displays his archaistic or foreign work. But he cannot 
deceive the trained discrimination of the later historian of 
art. 

Every form given to a material by man is the envelope or 
sign of a thought. Thoughts thus expressed are translated 
by archaeology, which science may consequently be defined 



AECH^OLOGICAL INSTRUCTION. 97 

as the study of all visible monuments of early human activity ; 
it excludes from its limits only the spoken and written lan- 
guages of the past. It is thus the science which alone can 
teach us the most remote history of the race ; for, while man 
has not always written, he has, from the first days of his 
existence, fashioned the materials which surrounded him to 
accommodate them to his needs, uuconsciousl}' impressing 
upon them the evidence of his conceptions and abilities. 
Hence, no object, however insignificant it may appear to un- 
trained eyes, is deemed by the archaeologist unworthy his study. 
He regards, with a respectful and almost tender curiosity, 
the smallest vestige of an earlier age, for in it he recognizes 
some human thought. The minutiae of archaeological methods 
are often ridiculed by the vulgar ; nothing is more easy than 
to jest at an uncomprehended activity of any kind. The 
justification lies in the result. Those researches are surely 
not in vain by which we are enabled to decipher a single 
line of the nearly obliterated pages of early human history. 

It is owing to those self-sacrificing explorers who for the 
last hundi'ed years have followed in the footsteps of Stuart 
and Revett, that we have to-day in archaeology a new science, 
which, in perfection of apparatus and results, may be proud- 
ly ranked with comparative anatomy : that branch of re- 
search which practical archaeology most closely resembles in 
point of method. For, as the naturalist from a handful of 
bones can present the image and describe the very habits of 
an animal which for thousands of years has had no repre- 
sentative on earth, so can the classically educated architect 
reconstruct the buildings of extinct civilizations by study of 
their overthrown and widely scattered stones. And as the 
anatomist sees in the varieties of species certain stages of 
advance dependent on environing conditions, — so does the 
student of antique sculpture note in the monuments of the 



98 A PLEA FOR 

Asiatic sea-board, of -Silgina, and of Attica, the develop- 
ment of artistic conceptions and technical execution. These 
observations gradually gi'ow to a history of a perfectly 
parallel human advance, a warning and directing guide. 

The great advantage of archaeological studies in peda- 
gogical respects lies in the fact that, although the ultimate 
suliject of research is the human mind, it deals primarily 
with the tangible facts and institutions of antiquity. For 
the purposes of instruction it has all the advantages of the 
concrete over the abstract. Non scJiolae, sed vitae. Any 
man who l)uilds a house, or drives a horse, will do it the 
better for knowing how houses were arranged, or horses 
trained, in the antique world. This must surely" be the 
manner in which the out-of-door Greeks would themselves 
have desired to be studied. It has often been remarked 
that no race has ever lived upon whose life external sur- 
roundings worked with deeper effect. More than any other 
people the Hellenes had a highly developed sense of the 
beautiful, and they found the delights to be derived from 
this appreciation as much in then- works of art as in their 
poetr}' and eloquence. Certainly no people was ever so 
surrounded by works of its own hands, and these works 
influenced most decisively the great body of the Greek 
public, for whom the scrolls which contained the writings of 
their comparatively few authors were far out of reach. It 
was not merely a literar}- education which raised the citizens 
of Athens to the eminence of the Pheidian age ; it was not 
the wisdom of their writei^s, but of their artists which 
occupied the most prominent place in the minds of the Greek 
people. Archaeology and the history of art teach us to 
comprehend Hellenic genius as expressed in these most 
characteristic works, which may be of a like beneficent 
influence upon our receptive and cosmopolitan generation. 



ARCHAEOLOGICAL INSTRUCTION. 99 

To study exclusively the literary aspects of Greek life, to 
refuse classical archaeology its high place in the unity of 
Hellenic studies, is to refuse to profit by those lessons of 
antiquity most needed by modern civilization. 

In consideration of these many and varied advantages, — 
I may even say of this imperative necessit}', — it is certainly 
most deplorable that there is to-day absolutely no recognized 
archaeological instruction in the United States. A barrier 
like the Chinese Wall seems to separate those who study 
antiquity- in its written works from those who seek its genius 
in material creations. One American university has, in the 
strength of its 3'outh, lifted itself upon tip-toe to glance over 
the wall ; but from one domain to the other there is no 
regularl}' established communication, no widel}' open gates. 

With this state of things the verdict of the most enlight- 
ened minds concerning the results of our pedagogical sj'stems 
ought not to surprise us. What M. Renan has said is only 
just: " The United States has created considerable popular 
instruction without any serious higher instruction, and will 
long have to expiate this fault by its intellectual mediocrity, 
its vulgarity of manners, its superficial spirit, its lack of 
general intelligence." Our own Lowell has stated the fact 
more terseW : "Americans are the most common-schooled 
and the least cultivated people in the world." 

The gradual advance of archaeology in the academical in- 
struction of Europe during the last hundred years indicates 
one of the most important lines of improvement. The six- 
teen most prominent universities of Germany, for instance, 
have regular chairs of archaeology, and there are doubtless 
others which have escaped the inquir}- of the present writer. 
Even ten years ago, when Meyer and Stark were com[)lain- 
ing so bitterly of the history of art, " that Cinderella among 



100 A PLEA FOR 

modern sciences," being neglected by native universities, 
there were independent professorships of this branch, in 
addition to the regular archaeological instruction, at Berlin, 
Bonn, Konigsberg, Leipzig, Munich, Strassburg, Prague, 
Tubingen, Vienna, and Zurich. 

France, England, and Italy follow this example. There 
exist no better arguments concerning the importance of 
archaeological studies in the higher curriculum than those 
delivered by M. George Perrot upon accepting the newly 
created chair of archaeology at the Sorbonne, and by Mr. 
Percy Gardener upon being called to a similar position at 
Cambridge. 

Even so small a university as that of Bucharest has a 
chair of archaiology. The fifteen lectures delivered by 
Professor Odobescu on the pedagogic importance of this 
science and its history up to the time of Montfauconi are 
well worthy the attention of those interested in the sub- 
ject. The Roumanian language — though it presents no 
serious difficulties to one acquainted with the other daugh- 
ters of the Latin — has not hitherto been much needed by 
scholars for purposes of reference ; the appearance in it of 
such a work indicates the rapid advance of archaeological 
studies beyond the narrow limits to which the last generation 
saw them confined. In view of this example, given by a 
state which until so very recently was between the upper 
and nether millstones of Oriental misrule and disturbance, 
we must cease to lay that flattering unction to our American 
souls which has too often been found in the "newness" of 
our country and its institutions. 

The decree which founded the Ecole cVAtMnes gave a 



1 A. L. Odobescu, Istoria Archeologiei, Studiu Intraductiou la Acesta 
Sciintia. Bucbaresci, 1877. 



AKCH^OLOGICAL INSTRUCTION. 101 

great and enduring impulse to these studies in France ; let 
us hope that our new American School at Athens may be- 
come something more than a philological seminary, and 
develop the broad interests of its well-arranged predecessors. 
For it is in Greece itself, amongst the vestiges of Hellenic 
civilization, that the study of its antiquities is pursued to the 
greatest advantage. Indeed, the chief difficulty of archae- 
ological studies lies in the fact that, in order to enjoy and 
fully to understand the material remains of antiquity, it is 
necessary to see them often, and to study them closel}^ By 
the magic of a few lines of Homer, of Euripides, of Catullus, 
the master of ancient languages carries his hearers on the 
wings of imagination to the classical world. But the 
archaeologist and the historian of art are less free from 
the material. The thoughts which they stud}' are embodied 
in a tangible form, of which a mere description is necessaril}' 
insufficient. It is not ditficnlt to lay out a plan of archai- 
ological study, aided by that admirable scheme of acade- 
mic instruction foimded by Hermann ' upon K. O. Miiller's 
great work, by Gerhard's similar schedule of lectures, ^ 
and by useful hints to be derived from later pedagog- 
ical treatises. 2 The difficulty lies rather in providing 
adequate illustrations for the histoi'ical and descriptive course 
determined upon. Hence an imperative requirement is the 
formation of a collection of antiquities, which is to archae- 

1 Schema akademischer Vortriige iiber Archaologie, oder Gesehichte 
der Kunst des klassiscben Alterthums. VouDr. K. Fr. Hermann. Guttin- 
gen, 1844. 

2 Grundriss der Archaeologie, fuer Vorlesungeu, nach Mueller's Hand- 
buch. Von Ed. Gerhard. Berlin, 1853. 

3 One of many : Vorschlilge zu einer Methode des asthetischen Unter- 
richts, nebst Beispieleu. Mit besonderer Hervorhebung der Griechen. 
Von Rudolf Menge. In the Padagogische Studien, Von Dr. Willielm 
Rein. Heft XII. Eisenach. 



102 A PLEA FOR 

ology what a labortitory is to chemistry. In this respect 
also the example is given b}' European countries. As late 
as 1850 Gerhard could scarcely find material in Berlin for 
the illustration of his lectures ; but in 1873 only five of 
the German universities (the inferior establishments of 
Erlangen, Giessen, Marburg, Miinster, and Rostock) were 
without archneological collections intended for the purposes 
of instruction. Many of these have gradually grown to 
great importance, Bonn, Breslau, and "VYurzburg possessing 
antiques of inestimal)le value. Even the preparatory schools 
of Germany often have admirably complete collections of casts, 
— as, for instance, that in the little town of Schulpforta, 
the catalogue of which, by Beundorf, is a work of independ- 
ent scientific interest. 

For the illustration of the histor}' of classical sculpture 
such a collection should consist of types chosen to represent 
the characteristics of different centuries and of various 
schools, rather than of those elegant and familiar figures 
which please at first sight. These examples should be 
arranged as far as possible in chronological order, so as to 
exhibit the modifications of technical methods and style, the 
gradual development of artistic means, the advance from 
the archaic to the highest perfection, and, finally, the affec- 
tation and insincerity of work which led to the decadence. 
Without such collections, or the far less trustworthy^ aid of 
engravings and photographs, the history of antique art and 
archaeology can only be pursued at the expense of laborious 
journeys, impossible to most students, which even the pro- 
fessional explorer has continually to recommence. 

Much has already been done in Europe to give to classical 
studies their true importance and to enable them to exercise 
their peculiarly salutary influence upon our generation ; but 
far more remains. We have improved, it is true, upon the 



AKCH^OLOGICAL INSTRUCTION. 103 

narrow pedantry of Conring and Gessner, to whom the 
texts were everything. The science of antiquity has become 
something more than that suffisance 2)urement livresque ridi- 
culed by Montaigne. But practical explorations are still 
not sufficiently encouraged, and archaeological instruction as 
yet has not attained its worthy place. 

The great Winckelmann stood on the portal between the 
past and the present of classical learning. It was the sug- 
gestiveuess of his historical methods that first pointed out 
the way which has led from the tasteless and unprofitable 
collector's mania of the Roccoco to the eminence of true 
archaeological science. But even in his exposition much 
was empirical, disconnected, and hopelessly entangled. The 
purely literary accounts of artistic development in Egypt, 
Mesopotamia, Pha?nicia, and Greece obscured rather than 
enlightened the scholars of the last century, and were ever 
before their eyes like distorting fogs. 

As late as the time of Zoega and Visconti the field of 
archaeology was a promised land, — seen by them with much 
the feelings of Moses upon Mount Pisgah. It has fii-st be- 
come possible to the younger generation of to-day to enter 
into full possession of the milk and honey of Greek perfec- 
tion. And this possibility is almost wholly due to the 
investigations of practical workers upon classic soil, and to 
those archaeological scholars who have taught the world the 
true value of the materials thus obtained. 



The Use of a Public Library in the 
Study of History. 



By Wm. E. Foster, Librarian of the Providence Public Library, 



IT would be a mistake to assume that the usefuhiess of 
such an institution as a public library is manifested ex- 
clusively, or even chiefly, in connection with any one line of 
investigation. On the contrary, the demands made upon it 
represent the widest variety of studies and researches. At 
the same time, some of its methods have been found to adapt 
themselves with peculiar directness to the requirements of 
historical study. 

For the sake of brevity, the instances cited below are 
drawn in every case from the experience of a single library ;' 
yet many of the phases of the work here indicated may no 
doubt be met with in other libraries ; and there would seem 
to be no inherent reason why they are not applicable to 
libraries in general. 

From the outset there has been a definite purpose to main- 
tain a concert of action, and a mutual understanding, between 
this library, on the one hand, and, on the other, such institu- 
tions and agencies as a local historical society, courses of 
study in college and in the pubUc schools, private schools, 
local debating societies, private historical classes, and bodies 

1 The Providence Public Library. 



106 THE USE OF A PUBLIC LIBRARY 

of students pursuing the admirable courses of the Society to 
Encourage Studies at Home, and simihir plans of study. In 
the college just referred to — Brown University — topics are 
regularly assigned for theme-writing, not only in the depart- 
ment of history, but in that of English literature and English 
composition. In one of these departments from the outset, 
and in the other during a great portion of the time, a memo- 
randum of the topics assigned has been invariably sent to the 
pultlic lilirary ; and carefully prepared lists of references to 
authorities have thereupon been made. Naturally a large 
share of the topics in both the departments above mentioned 
may be described as distinctly historical ; in many cases, 
however, l)iographical or literary. The lists of references 
thus prepared have not merely been forwarded to the college 
class, but have also been placed on file at the library, for the 
use of the students. Gradually, moreover, an extension of 
this system to the requirements of the other readers and 
students named above — those of the public and private 
schools, etc. — has grown up, in which the same method 
is followed with greater or less elaborateness. The aim has 
been, in short, to observe diligently the nature and extent of 
the actual demands iipon the library for specific assistance of 
this kind, and then to meet it in the fullest possible manner. 

But this is only one phase of the work ; for the aim has 
been not merely to meet such a demand, but to create it as 
well. For instance, it has been the unbroken practice, from 
the very first day on which the library was opened,' to post a 
series of "daily notes" on current events and topics. A 
newspaper slip, cut in nearly every instance from the morn- 
ing paper of the current date, is posted on the bulletin-board 
in the public portion of the library ; and under this are 

1 lu 1878. 



IN THE STUDY OF HISTORY. 107 

gi'ouped references to authorities, — in man}' instances citing 
volume and page, — wliich illustrate, or supplement, or in 
some way bear upon this topic. Opposite each entry, more- 
over, the reader finds the book-number, by which to apply 
for the work in question ; and this he is very likely to do. 
It is, in fact, a slice out of the catalogue wliich is thus pre- 
sented to the attention of readers each morning, but the 
references are on a much more minute plan than would be 
possible in any ordinary catalogue. What relation, it may 
be asked, has this to the study of history? In the first place, 
most of the topics thus presented, distinctly illustrate Mr. 
Freeman's suggestion, that "History is past politics; and 
politics present history " ; and during the past six years cases 
in point have been the "Berlin Congress," "Nihilism in 
Russia," the "Operations in Eg3^pt," etc. In the second 
place, it has been found that the works in the library, to 
which the references have thus been made, are, in a very large 
percentage of instances, works of standard history. 

The most significant fact in connection with this system of 
suggestions and assistance is the completeness with which 
it has been recognized and used by the readers. These daily 
notes, hanging always in a well-recognized place, near the 
entrance, have from tlie first been regularly scanned ; and 
the extent to which the suggestions have actually been put in 
practice has been at all times an appreciable feature in the 
intelligent use made of the library. But this " daily " system, 
though the earliest of the library's schemes of suggesting lines 
of reading, has not been the only one. From it, as a basis, 
have been developed several very interesting outgrowths, in 
some instances vmforeseen. (1) It was found that these 
daily lists had, in the eyes of the readers, a more than 
ephemeral value. They were not merely examined on the 
day when posted, but were consulted weeks after, by those 



108 THE USE OF A PUBLIC LIBEAKY 

who remembered having seen on a given day a list on a given 
subject. So many, moreover, were the instances in which a 
desire was expressed to make copies of the more extended 
lists, that tlie copying process known as the hektograph was 
introduced, and thus a number of copies could be supplied to 
those who desired them. (2) To tlie surprise of the librarian, 
the number of readers who could thus be supplied (70 or 75) 
was soon found to be too limited, and resort was had to 
printing them. At first this was only at rare intervals, and 
in special cases, but in 1880 the practice was begun — and 
since continued without interruption — of regular weekly 
printed lists in each of two local daily newspapers. This 
has proved an eminently practical and successful measure. 
The library's "constituency," so to speak, consisting of the 
local public, has, placed under its eyes each week, whether 
visiting tlie library in person or not, a memorandum of read- 
ing, in cei'tain specified lines. As a matter of fact, it is 
noticed that in a large numl)er of instances readers come to 
tlie library with these weekly lists in their liands, which they 
have cut from their newspaper, and which they plainly use as 
a species of order-list. (3) The next step is of curious 
interest as illustrating the repeatedly demonstrated fact, that 
the usefulness of such an institution is not limited by the 
district or municipality in which it is situated. In response 
to numerous requests, several of the more extended lists were 
printed in the "Library Journal" (New York), and else- 
where, in 1880. In 1881, however, was begun the regular 
monthly issue of the periodical entitled the ' ' Monthly Refer- 
ence Lists." 

This periodical, published at a specified subscription-price, 
began with a subscription-list which was chiefly local, but 
which has gradually widened to include readers in all parts of 
this country, and several in Europe. Among the historical 



IN THE STUDY OF HI8TORY. 109 

lists which have appeared in this, from month to month, have 
been references on such current topics as " The Stability of 
the French Republic," " The German Empire," " European 
Interests in Egypt," "Indian Tribes in the United States," 
etc. At the same time a very general demand for references 
in connection with topics which may be called standard, 
rather than current, has led to the furnishing of lists on such 
subjects as " The Unification of Italy,' '" The Closing Years 
of the Roman Republic," "The Plantagenets in England," 
and "Tendencies of Local Self-government in the United 
States." Other topics again, like "Elements of Unity in 
South-Eastern Europe," stand for the interest awakened by 
historical lectures like those of Mr. Freeman ; while still 
others, like " Yorktown," plainly connect themselves with 
the recurrence of some anniversary. 

Certainly not the least noteworthy of the phases of recent 
historical research has been the newly-awakened interest in 
the study of American history, and very naturally the read- 
ing and study connected with public libraries have reflected 
thts fact. Four years ago the librarian prepared for use in 
connection with several of the schools, a series of lists on 
American liistory, covering (1) the early stages of colonial 
history, (2) the adoption of the constitution, and (3) United 
States 'history since 1789. The first set of these lists (on 
the colonies) has been printed, in part, in the "Library 
Journal"; the second (on the constitution), in "Economic 
ti-act. No. 2," issued ])y the Society for Political Education, 
in 1881 ; while the third (on the administrations since 1789), 
has for the past year been published, mouth by month, in 
the "Monthly Reference Lists"; a separate list being 
devoted to the administration of each successive president. 
In thus re-issuing them, the librarian has wished to render 
them as distinctly adapted to the use of readers as possible ; 



110 THE USE OF A PUBLIC LIBKAKY 

and the proofs have accord iugly passed, month by month, 
under the eyes of accomplished historical investigators at 
Cambridge, New Haven, Ithaca, Princeton, Baltimore, Ann 
Arbor, and Madison. 

Perhaps there is no more significant feature connected 
with an institution like a public library, than the fact that its 
service is rendered alike to the intelligent reader and to the 
untrained mind ; to the specialist and to the general reader. 
What has been the fact in connection with the class last 
named? Greatly to the librarian's satisfaction, it has been 
found that one of the results of this systematic plan of assist- 
ance and suggestions, is actually to awaken an interest where 
none existed, and to supply a clue to historical researches, 
which may be followed out, with greater or less comprehen- 
siveness, by the reader himself. In repeated instances com- 
ing under the librarian's own observation, this result has 
been noted, and it is of course impossible to say in how many 
other instances it may have been the case. And, in truth, it 
is not at all strange that it should be so. These daily, 
weekly, and monthly references, on topics of current interest, 
are precisely in the line of what is at the time uppermost in 
the thouglit of the public ; and it is for this reason that they 
appeal to the interested attention of a very wide circle of 
readers with so much more than ordinary directness. 

A study of library methods like these, moreover, reveals 
the very marked extent to which a public library becomes 
almost of necessity an agency in the diffusion of knowledge. 
Given a certain portion of the library's constituency who are 
known to be desirous of certain aids to advanced research ; 
given also the desired aids. "Who is to say that the only ones 
who will avail themselves of these aids are the skilled students 
for whom they are primarily supplied? The reverse has, in 
fact, been found to be the case, by actual observation. The 



IN THE STUDY OF HISTORY. Ill 

references in connection with college themes, for instance, 
placed on file at the librar}^ where the}' may be used by any 
one, have indeed been coustantW used by the students them- 
selves ; but they have also been used to a very marked extent 
by the general public. There should be observed, of course, 
on the one hand, a caution against " shooting above the heads 
of the public " ; but there is a no less important uecessit}', on 
the other, for not undervaluing the intelligence of readers, 
and for supplying what may even be regarded as a mental 
stimulus or impulse. In historical studies, as in other fields 
of investigation, there can be little doubt that a public 
library may so all}'^ itself (to quote from Mr. Charles Francis 
Adams, Jr.) with certain " wide, deep currents of popular 
taste," and with the pervasive spirit of the time, as to become 
a constant force in the progress towards better results. 



Special Methods of Historical Study^ 

AS PURSUED AT THE JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY 
AND FORMERLY AT SIVHTH COLLEGE. 



By Profkssor Herbert B. Adams, Johns Hopkins University. 

THE main principle of historical training at the Johns Hop- 
kins University is to encourage independent thought and 
/escarch. Little heed is given to text-books, or the mere 
phraseology of history, but all stress is laid upon clear and 
original statements of fact and opinion, whether the student's 
own or the opinion of a consulted author. The comparative 
method of reading and study is followed by means of assign- 
ing to individual members of the class separate topics, with 
references to various standard works. These topics are duly 
reported upon by the appointees, either ex tempore^ with the 
the aid of a few notes, or in formal papers, which are dis- 
cussed at length by the class. The oral method has been 
found to afford a better opportunity than essays for question 
and discussion, and it is in itself a good means of individual 
training, for the student thereby learns to think more of sub- 
stance than of form. Where essays are written, more time 

1 This article contains extracts from a paper on "History: Its Place 
in American Colleges," originally contributed in October, 1879, to The 
Alumnus, a literary and educational quarterly then published in Phila- 
delphia, but now suspended and entirely out of print. A few extracts have 
also been made from an article on "Co-operation in University Work," in 
the second number of The Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical 
and Political Science. But the body of the article is new, and was written 
by request, for the purpose of suggesting to teachers how the study of His- 
tory might bo made more interesting and vital by beginning upon home 
ground, with the investigation of local life aad its widening relations. 



114 SPECIAL IVIETHODS OF 

is usually expended on style than on the acquisition of facts. 
If the student has a well-arranged brief, like a lawyer's, and 
a head full of ideas, he will express himself at least intel- 
ligibly, and clearness and elegance will come with sufficient 
practice. The ex tempore method, with a good brief or 
abstract (which may be dictated to the class) is one of the 
best methods for the teacher as well as for the student. The 
idea should be, in both cases, to personify historical science 
in the individual who is speaking upon a given topic. A book 
or an essay, however symmetrical it may be, is often only a 
fossil, a lifeless thing ; but a student or teacher talking from 
a clear head is a fountain of living science. A class of bright 
minds quickly discern the difference between a phrase-maker 
and a man of ideas. 

As an illustration of the kind of subjects in mediaeval his- 
tory studied in 1878, independently of an}' text-book, by a 
class of undergraduates, from eighteen to twenty-two 3ears 
of age, the following list of essay-topics is appended : — 

1. Influence of Roman law during the middle ages. (Savigny, 

Sir Henry Maine, Guizot, Iladley.) 

2. Tlie kingdom of Theodoric, the East Goth. (Mihnaii, Gibbon, 

Freeman.) 

3. Tlie conversion of Germany. (Merivale, Mihnan, Trench.) 

4. Tlie conversion of England. (Bede, Mihuan, Freeman, Mont- 

alembert. Trench.) 

5. The civilizing influence of the Benedictine Monks. (Montalem- 

bert, Gibbon, Mihnan.) 

6. Cloister and cathedral schools. (Einhard, Guizot, MuUinger.) 

7. The origin and character of mediaeval universities. (Green, 

History of England ; Lacroix ; various university histories.) 

8. Modes of legal ^^rocedure among the early Teutons. (Waitz, 

J. L. Laughlin, Lea.) 

9. Report of studies in "Anglo-Saxon Law." (Henry Adams 

et al.) 



HISTORICAL STUDY. 115 

10. Origin of Feudalism. Feudal rights, aids, and incidents. 

(Guizot, Hallam, Stubbs, Digby, Maine, Waitz, Roth.) 

11. Evils of Feudalism. (Authorities as above.) 

12. Benefits of Feudalism. (As above.) 

13. The Saxon Witenagemot and its historical relation to the House 

of Lords. (Freeman, Stubbs, Ilallam, Guizot.) 

14. Origin of the House of Commons. (Pauli, Creighton, and 

authorities above stated.) 

15. Origin of communal liberty. (Hegel, Stadteverfassung von 

Italien ; Testa, Communes of Lombardy ; AVauters, Les liber- 
tes communales ; Stubbs, Freeman, Guixot, et al.) 

At Smith College, an institution founded at Northampton, 
Massachusetts, by a generous woman, in the interest of the 
higher education of her sex, the study of history is pursued 
by four classes in regular gradation, somewhat after the col- 
lege model. The First, corresponding to the "Freshman" 
class, study oriental or ante-classic history, embracing the 
Stone Age, Egypt, Palestine, Phoenicia, the empires of Meso- 
potamia and ancient India. This course was pursued in 
1879 by dictations and ex tempore lectures on the part of the 
teacher, and by independent reading on the part of the pupils. 
The first thing done by the teacher in the introduction to the 
history of any of the above-mentioned countries, was to ex- 
plain the sources from which the history of that countr}- was 
derived, and then to characterize briefly the principal literary 
works relating to it, not omitting historical novels, like libers' 
"Egyptian Princess," or "Uarda." Afterwards, the salient 
features, in Egj'ptian history, for example, were presented by 
the instructor, under distinct heads, such as geography, re- 
ligion, art, literature, and chronology. Map-drawing by and 
before the class was insisted upon ; and, in connection with 
the foregoing subjects, books or portions of books were recom- 
roended for private reading. For instance, on the ' ' Geography 



116 SPECIAL METHODS OF 

of Egypt," fifty pages of Herodotus were assigned iu Rawlin- 
son's translation. This, and other reading, was done in the 
so-called " Reference Library," which was provided with all 
the books that were recommended. An oral account of such 
reading was sooner or later demanded from each pupil by 
the instructor, and fresh points of information were thus con- 
tinually brought out. The amount of positive fact acquired 
by a class of seventy-five bright young women bringing to- 
gether into one focus so many individual rays of knowledge, 
collected from the best authorities, is likely to burn to ashes 
the dry l)ones of any text-book, and to keep the instructor at 
a white heat. 

As an illustration of the amount of reading done iri one 
terin of ten weeks by this class of beginners in history, 
the following fair specimen of the lists handed in at the 
end of the academic year of 1879 is appended. The read- 
ing was of course by topics : — 

EGYPT. 

Unity of History (Freeman). 

Geography (Herodotus). 

Gods of Egypt (J. Freeman Clarke). 

Manners and Customs (Wilkinson). 

Upi^er Egy];it (Klunzinger). 

Art of Egy]^)t (Ltibke). 

Hypatia (Kingsley). 

Egyptian Princess (Ebers). 

PALESTINE. 

Sinai and Palestine, 40 pages (Stanley). 
History of the Jews (extracts from Joseph us). 
The Beginnings of Christianity, Chap. VII. (Fisher). 
Religion of the Hebrews (J. Freeman Clarke). 



HISTOEICAL STUDY. 117 

PHCENICIA, ASSYUIA, ETC. 

Phoenicia, 50 pages (Kenrick). 
Assyi'ian Discoveries (George Smith). 
Chaldean Account of Genesis (George Smitli). 
Assyrian Arcliitecture (Fergusson). 
Art of Central Asia (Liibke). 

In the Seeoud, or "Sophomore" class, classic history was 
pursued b}' means of the History- Primers of (Greece and 
Rome, supplemented by lectures and dictations, as the time 
would allow. The Junior class studied mediaeval historj- in 
much the same way, by text-books (the Epoch Series) and 
by lectures. Both classes did excellent work of its kind, but 
it was not the best kind ; for little or no stimulus was given 
to original research. And yet, perhaps, to an outsider, fond 
of old-fashioned methods of recitation, these classes would 
have appeared better than the First class. Thej- did harder 
work, but it was less spontaneous and less scientific. The 
fault was a fault of method. 

With the Senior class the method described as in use at 
the Johns Hopkins University was tried with marked suc- 
cess. With text-books on modern history as a guide for the 
whole class, the plan was followed out of assigning to indi- 
viduals subjects with references for private reading and 
for an oral report of about fifteen minutes' length. The class 
took notes on these reports or informal student-lectures 
as faithfully as on the extended remarks and more formal 
lectures of the instructor. This system of making a class 
lectiu'e to itself is, of course, very unequal in its innuediate 
results, and sometimes unsatisfactory ; but, as a system of 
individual training for advanced pupils, it is valuable as a 
means both of culture and of discipline. Contrast the good 
to the individual student of any amount of mere text-book 



118 SPECIAL METHODS OP 

memorizing or idle note-taking with the positive culture and 
wide acquaintance with books, derived in ten weeks from such 
a range of reading as is indicated in the following bond fide 
report by one member of the Senior class (1879), who after- 
wards was a special student of historj' for two years in the 
"Annex" at Harvard College, and who in 1881 returned to 
Smitli College for her degree of Ph.D. First are given the 
subjects assigned to this young woman for research, and the 
reading done by her in preparation for report to the class ; 
and then is given the list of her general reading in connec- 
tion with the class work of the term. Other members of the 
class had other subjects and similar reports : — 

I. SUBJECTS FOR RESEARCH. 

1. Anselm and RoscelUnus. 

Milman's Latin Christianity, Vol. IV., pp. 190-225. 
Ueberweg's Histoiy of Philosophy, Vol. I., pp. 271-385. 

2. Platonic Academy at Florence. . .. 
Roscoe's Life of Lorenzo di Medici, Vol. I., p. 30 et seq. 
Bm-ckliardt's Renaissance, Vol. I. 

Villavi's Machiavelli, Vol. I., p. 205 et seq. 

3. Colet. --— , ^ ^ . . 
Seebohm's Oxford Reformers. ' "^ 

4. Calvin. 

Fisher's History of the Reformation (Calvin). 

Spalding's History of the Reformation (Calvin). 

D'Aubigne's History of the Reformation, Vol. I., book 2, chap. 7. 

5. Frederick the Great. 

Macaulay's Essay on Frederick the Great. 
Lowell's Essay on Frederick the Great. 
Ency. Brit. Article on Frederick the Great. 
Menzel's History of Germany (Frederick the Great). 
Carlyle's Frederick the Great (parts of Vols. I., XL, III.). 

6. Results of the French Revolution. 
French Revolution (Epoch Series). 



HISTORICAL STUDY. 119 

II. GENERAL READING. 

Roscoe's Life of Leo X. (oue-half of Vol. I.). 

Mrs. Oliphant's Makers of Florence (on cathedral builders, Savo- 
narola, a Private Citizen, Michel Angelo). 

Symonds' Renaissance (Savonarola). 

Walter Pater's Renaissance (I^eonardo da Vinci). 

Hallam's Middle Ages (on Italian Repnblics). 

Benvenuto Cellini's Autobiography (about one-half). 

Burckhardt's Renaissance (nearly all). 

Vasari's Lives of the Painters (da Vinci, Alberti). 

Lowell's Essay on Dante. 

Carlyle's Essay on Dante. 

Trench's Medipeval Church History (Great Coiincils of the West, 
Huss and Bohemia, Eve of the Reformation). 

Fisher's History of the Reformation (Luther). 

Wliite's Eighteen Christian Centui'ies (16th). 

Macaulay's Essay on Ranke's History of the Popes. 

Lecky's European Morals (last chapter). 

Seebohm's Era of the Protestant Revolution. 

Froude's Short Studies on Great Subjects (studies on the times 
of Erasmus and Luther, the Dissolution of the Monasteries) . 

Spalding's History of the Reformation (chapter on Luther). 

Carlyle's Essay on Luther and Knox. 

Hosmer's German Literature (chapters on Luther, Thirty Years' 
War, Minnesingers and INIastersingers). 

Gardiner's Thirty Years' War. 

Morris's Age of Anne. 

George Eliot's Romola (about one-half). 

Hawthorne's Marble Farm (parts). 

It is but fair to say in reference to this vast amount of 
reading, that it represents the chief work done by the above- 
mentioned young lady during the summer term, for her class 
exercises were mainly lectures requiring little outside study. 
The list will serve not raerel}' as an illustration of Senior 
work in history at Smith College, but also as an excellent 



120 SPECIAL METHODS OF 

guide for a course of private reading on the Renaissance and 
Reformation. No more interesting or profitable course can be 
followed than a study of the Beginnings of Modern History. 
With Symouds' works on the "-Renaissance in Ital}'," Burck- 
hardt's "Civilization of the Period of the Renaissance" (Eng- 
lish translation) , and Seebohm's ' ' Era of the Protestant 
Revolution" (Epoch series) for guide-books, a college in- 
structor can indicate to his pupils lines of special investiga- 
tion more grateful than text-book ' ' cramming," more inspiring 
than lectures or dictations. The latter, though good to a 
certain extent, become deadening to a class when its 
members are no longer stimulated to original research, but 
sink back in passive reliance upon the authority of the lec- 
turer. That method of teaching history which converts 
bright young pupils into note-taking machines is a bad 
method. It is the construction of a poor text-book at the 
expense of much valuable time and 3'outhful energy. Goethe 
satu'ized this, the fault of German academic instruction, in 
Mephistopheles' counsel to the student, who is advised to 
study well his notes, in order to see that the professor says 
nothing which he hasn't said already : — 

Damit ilir nachher besser seht, 
Dass er uichts sagt, als was iin Biiche steht; 
Doch euch des Schreibens ja befleisst, 
Als dictirt' euch der Heilig' Geist ! 

The simple-minded student assents to this counsel, and says 
it is a great comfort to have everything in black and white, 
so that he can carry it all home. But no scrap-book of facts 
can give wisdom, any more than a tank of water can form 
a running spring. It is, perhaps, of as much consequence to 
teach a young person Jioio to study history as to teach him 
history itself. 

The above notes were written in the summer of 1879, and 



HISTORICAL STUDY. 121 

were published iu October of that year, after the author's 
return to Baltimore. Subsequent experience at Smith Col- 
lege, in the spring terms of 1880 and 1881, when the lec- 
turer's four years' partial connection with Smith College 
terminated, showed the necessity of a reference library' 
for each class, the resources of the main collection in the 
reading-room having proved inadequate to the growing his- 
torical needs of the college. Instead of buying text-books, 
the members of each class, with the money which text-books 
would have cost, formed a library fuud, from which a book 
committee purchased such standard works (often with du- 
plicate copies) as the lecturer recommended. The class libra- 
ries were kept in places generally accessible ; for example, 
in the front halls of the " cottage " dormitories. Each class 
had its own system of rules for library administration. 
Books that were in greatest demand could be kept out only 
one or two days. The amount of reading by special topics 
accomplished in this way in a single term was reall}' most 
remarkable. Note-books with abstracts of daily work were 
kept, and finally handed in as a part of the term's examina- 
tion. Oral examinations upon readmg, pursued iu connection 
with the lectures, were maintained throughout the term, and, 
at the close, a written examination upon the lectures and 
other required topics, together with a certain range of optional 
subjects, fairl}' tested the results of this voluntary method 
of historical study. The amount of knowledge acquired in 
this wa}- would as much surpass the substance of any S3\stem 
of lectures or any mere text-book acquisitions as a class 
library of standard historians surpasses an individual teacher 
or any historical manual. This method of study is practi- 
cable in any high-school class of moderate size. If classes 
are gelierous, they will leave their libraries to successors, 
who can thus build up a collection for historical reference 



122 SPECIAL METHODS OF 

within the school itself, which will thus become a seminary 
of living science. 

A development of the above idea of special libraries for 
class use was the foundation in Baltimore, at the Johns Hop- 
kins University, in 1881-2, of a special library for the study of 
American Institutional History by college graduates. There 
was nothing really new about the idea except its application. 
German universities have their seminarium libraries distinct 
from the main universit}' library, although often in the same 
building. In Baltimore the special library was established 
in the lecture-room where the class meets. The design of 
the collection was to gather within easy reach the chief 
authorities used in class work and in such original investiga- 
tions as were then in progress. The special aim, however, 
was to bring together the statutoiy law and colonial archives 
of the older States of the Union, together witli the journals 
of Congress, American State papers, and the writings and 
lives of American statesmen, "^e statutes of England and 
parliamentary reports on subjects of particular interest were 
next secured. Then followed, in December, 1882, the acqui- 
sition of the Bluntschli Library of three thousand volumes, 
with many rare pamphlets and Bluntschli' s manuscripts, in- 
cluding his notes taken under Niebuhr the historian, and 
under Savigny the jurist. This libraiy of the lamented Dr. 
Bluntschli, professor of constitutional and international law 
in Heidelberg, was presented to the Johns Hopkins Univer- 
sity by German citizens of Baltimore ; and it represents, not 
only in its transfer to America, but in its veiy constitution, 
the internationality of modern science. Here is a library, 
which, under the care of a great master, developed from the 
narrow chronicles of a Swiss town and canton into a library 
of cosmopolitan character, embracing man}' nations in its 
scope. Into this inheritance the Seminary Library of Ameri- 



EUSTORICAL STUDY. 123 

can Institutional History has now entered. Although the 
special work of the Seminary will still be directed toward 
American themes, yet it will be from the vantage-ground of 
the Bluntschli Library, and with the knowledge that this 
great collection was the outgrowth of communal studies 
similar to those now in progress in Baltimore. 

A word may be added in this connection touching the nature 
of gi-aduate-work in history at the Johns Hopkins University. 
What was said in the early part of this article applied only 
to undergraduates, who develop into the very best class of 
graduate students now present at the University. The idea 
of a co-operative study of American local institutions, liy 
graduate students representing different sections of conntr}-, 
evolved very naturally from the Baltimore environment. Ger- 
minant interest in the subject originated in a study of New 
England towns, in a spring sojourn for four years at Smith 
College, Northampton, Mass., and in summer tours along the 
New England coast ; but tlu^ development of this interest was 
made possible by associations in Baltimore with men from 
the South and the "West, who were able and willing to describe 
the institutions of their own States for purposes of compari- 
son with the institutions of other States. Thus it has come 
about that the parishes, districts, and counties of Maryland, 
Virginia, and the Carolinas are placed historically side by 
side with the townships of the West and the towns and par- 
ishes of New England ; so that, by and by, all men will see 
how much these different sections have in common. 

There is a great variety of subjects pertaining to American 
local life in its rural and municipal manifestations. Not only 
the history of local government, but the history of schools, 
churches, charities, manufactures, industries, prices, eco- 
nomics, municipal protection, municipal reforms, local taxa- 
tion, representation, administration, poor laws, liquor laws, 



124 SPECIAL METHODS OF 

labor laws, and a thousaud and one chapters of legal and 
social history are yet to be written in every State. Johns 
Hopkins students have selected only a few topics I'ike 
towns, parishes, manors, certain state systems of free schools, 
a few phases of city government, a few French and Indian 
villages in the North-west, certain territorial institutions, Can- 
adian feudalism, the town institutions of New England (to a 
limited extent) ; but there is left historical territory enough 
for student immigration throughout the next hundred years. 
The beauty of science is that there are always new worlds 
to discover. And at the present moment there await the 
student pioneer vast tracts of American institutional and 
economic history almost as untouched as were once the for- 
ests of America, her coal measures and prairies, her mines 
of iron, silver, and gold. Individual and local effort will 
almost everywhere meet with quick recognition and grate- 
ful returns. But scientific and cosmopolitan relations with 
college and university centres, together with the generous 
co-operation of all explorers in the same field, will certainly 
yield the most satisfactory results both to the individual and 
to the community which he represents. 

It is highly important that isolated students who desu-e to 
co-operate in this kind of work should avail themselves of the 
existing machinery of local libraries, the local press, local 
societies, and local clubs. If such things do not exist, the 
most needful should be created. No community is too small 
for a book club and for an association of some sort. Local 
studies should always be connected in some way with the life 
of the community, and should always be used to quicken that 
life to higher consciousness. A stud'jnt, a teacher, who pre- 
pares a paper on local history or some social question, should 
read it before the village lyceum or some literary club or an 
association of teachers. If encouraged to believe his work 



HISTOmCAL STUDY. 125 

of any general interest or permanent value, he should print 
it in the local paper or in a local magazine, perhaps an edu- 
cational journal, without aspiring to the highest popular 
monthlies, which will certainly reject all purely local contri- 
butions by unknown contributors. It is far more practicable 
to publish by local aid in pamphlet form or in the proceed- 
ings of associations and learned societies, before which such 
papers may sometimes be read. 

From a variety of considerations, the writer is persuaded 
that one of the best introductions to history that can be given 
in American high schools, and even in those of. lower grade, 
is through a study of the community in which the school is 
placed. History, like charity, begins at home. The best 
American citizens are those who mind home affairs and local 
interests. " That man's the best cosmopolite who loves his 
native country best." The best students of universal history 
are those who know some one country or some one subject 
well. The family, the hamlet, the neighborhood, the com- 
munity, the parish, the village, town, city, county, and state 
are historicall}' the ways by which men have approached 
national and international life. It was a preliminary study 
of the geography of Frankfort-on-the-Main that led Carl 
Hitter to study the physical structure of Europe and Asia, 
and thus to establish the new science of comparative geog- 
raphy. He saj^s : " Whoever has wandered through the val- 
leys and woods, and over the hills and mountains of his own 
state, will be the one capable of following a Herodotus in his 
wanderings over the globe." And we may say, as Ritter 
said of the science of geography, the first step in history is 
to know thoroughly the district where we live. In America, 
Guyot has represented for mauj' years this method of teach- 
ing geography. Huxley, in his Physiography, has introduced 
pupils to a study of Nature as a whole, by calling attention 



126 SPECIAL METHODS OF 

to the physical features of the Thames valley aud the wide 
range of natural phcuomeua that may be observed in any 
English parish. Humboldt long ago said in his Cosmos : 
' ' Every little nook and shaded corner is but a reflection of 
the whole of Nature." There is something very suggestive 
and ver}' quickening in such a philosophy of Nature and his- 
tory as regards every spot of the earth's surface, every 
pebble, everj' form of organic life, from the lowest mollusJv 
to the highest phase of human society, as a perfect micro- 
cosm, perhaps an undiscovered world of suggestive truth. 
But it is important to remember that all these things should 
be studied in their widest relations. Natural history is of 
no significance if viewed apart from Man. Human history is 
without foundation if separated from Nature. The deeds of 
men, the genealogy of families, the annals of quiet neigh- 
borhoods, the records of towns, states, and nations ure pai' se 
of little consequence to history unless in some way these 
isolated things are brought into vital connection with the 
progress and science of the world. To establish such con- 
nections is sometimes like the discovery of unknown lands, 
the exploration of new countries, and the widening of the 
world's horizon. 

American local history should first be studied as a contri- 
bution to national history. This country will yet be viewed 
and reviewed as an organism of historic growtli, developing 
from minute germs, from the very protoplasm of state life. 
And some day this country will be studied in its international 
relations, as an organic part of a larger organism now 
vaguely called the World State, but as surely developing 
through the operation of economic, legal, social, and scien- 
tific forces as the American Union, the German and British 
Empires are evolving into higher forms. American his- 
tory in its widest relations is not to be written by any ouq 



HLSTOEICAL STUDY. 127 

man nor by any one generation of men. Our history will 
grow with the nation and with its developing consciousness 
of iuternatiouality. The present possibilities for the real 
progress of historic and economic science lie, first and fore- 
most, in the development of a generation of economists and 
practical historians, who realize that history is past politics 
and politics present history ; secondly, in the expansion of 
the local consciousness into a fuller sense of its historic worth 
and dignity, of the cosmopolitan relations of modern local 
life, and of its own wholesome conservative- power in these 
days of growing centralization. National and international 
life can best develop upon the constitutional basis of local 
self-government in church and state. 

The work of developing a generation of specialists has 
already begun in the college and the university. The devel- 
opment of local consciousness can perhaps be best stimulated 
through the common school. It ma}' be a suggestive fact 
that the school committee of Great Barrington, Mass., lately 
voted {Berksliire Courier, Sept. 6, 1882) to introduce into 
their village high school, i in the hands of an Amherst grad- 
uate, in connection with Nordhoff's " Politics for Young 
Americans" and Jevons' "Primer of Political Economy," 
the article upon ' ' The Germanic Origin of New England 
Towns," which was once read in part before the Village 
Improvement Society of Stockbridge, Mass., Aug. 24, 1881, 
and published in the Plttsfield Evening Journal of that day. 
Local demand really- occasioned a university supply of the 
article " in question. The possible connection between the 

1 The catalogue of the Great Barrington High School (1882) shows that 
the study of history and politics is there founded, as it should be, upon a 
geographical basis. 

2 Johns IIo2)kins University Studies in Historical and Political Science, 
II. " The Germanic Origin of New England Towns." (Now out of print, 
1684.) 



128 SrECIAL METHODS OF 

college and the common school is still better illustrated by 
the case of Professor Macy, of Iowa College, Griunell, who 
is one of the most active pioneers in teaching "•the real 
homely facts of government," and who in 1881 published a 
little tract on Civil Government in Iowa, which is now used 
by teachers throughout that entire State in preparing their 
oral instructions for young pupils, beginning with the town- 
ship and the county, the institutions that are "nearest and 
most easily learned." A special pupil of Professor Macy's 
— Albert Shaw, A.B., Iowa College, 1879 — is now writing 
a snnilar treatise on Civil Government in Illinois, for school 
use in that State. There should be such a manual for every 
State in the Union. 

But the writer would like to see a text-book which not only 
explains, as does Principal Macy, " the real homel}' facts of 
government," but which also suggests how those facts came 
to be. A study of the practical workings of local govern- 
ment and of the American Constitution is the study of poli- 
tics which every young American ought to pursue. But a 
study of the origin and development of American institutions 
is a study of history in one of its most important branches. 
It is not necessary that young Americans should grapple with 
' ' the Constitution ' ' at the very outset. Their forefathers 
put their energies into the founding of villages, towns, and' 
plantations before the}^ thought of American independence. 
Their first country this side of the Atlantic was the colony ; 
in some instances, the count}^ It is not uuAvorthy of sons 
to study the historic work of fathers who constructed a nation 
upon the solid rock of local self-government in church and 
state. 

If young Americans are to appreciate their religious and 
political inheritance, they must learn its intrinsic worth. 
They must be taught to appreciatG the common and lowly 



HISTOEICAL STUDY. 129 

things around them. They should grow up with a,s profound 
respect for town and parish meetings as for the State legis- 
lature, not to speak of the Houses of Congress. They should 
recognize the majesty of the law, even in the parish constable 
as well as in the high sheriff of the county. They should 
look on selectmen as the head men of the town, the survival 
of the old English reeve and four best men of the parish. 
They should be taught to see in the town common or village 
green a survival of that primitive institution of laud-com- 
munity upon which town and state are based. They should 
be taught the meaning of town and family names ; how the 
word "town" means, primarily, a place hedged in for pur- 
poses of defence ; how the picket-fences around home and 
house-lot are but a survival of the primitive toivn idea ; how 
liome, hamlet, and toimi live on together in a name like 
Hampton, or Home-toion. They should investigate the most 
ordinary things, for these are often the most archaic. For 
example, there is the village pound, which Sir Henry Maine 
says is one of the most ancient institutions, "older than the 
king's bench, and probably older than the kingdom." There, 
too, are the field-drivers (still known in New England), the 
ancient town herdsmen, village shepherds, and village swine- 
herds (once common in this country) , who serve to connect 
our historic life with the earliest pastoral beginnings of 
mankind. 

It would certainly be an excellent thing for the develop- 
ment of historical science in America if teachers in our pub- 
lic schools would cultivate the historical spirit in their pupils 
with special reference to the local environment. Something 
more than local history can be drawn from such sources. 
Take the Indian relics, the arrow-heads which a bo}' has 
found in his father's field or which may have been given him 
by some antiquary : here are texts for familiar talks by the 



130 SPECIAL METHODS OF 

teacher upon the ' ' Stone Age ' ' and the progress of the 
world from savage beginnings. Indian names still linger 
upon our landscapes, upon our mountains, rivers, fields, and 
meadows, aftbrding a suggestive parallel between the "exter- 
minated" natives of England and New England. What a 
quickening impulse could be given to a class of Ijright pupils 
b}' a visit to some scene of ancient conflict with the Indians, 
like that at Bloody Brook in South Deerfield, Mass., or to 
such an interesting local museum as that in Old Deerfield, 
whei'e is exhibited, in a good state of preservation, the door 
of an early settler's house, — a door cut through b}' Indian 
tomahawks. A nuiltitude of historical associations gather 
around every old town and hamlet in the land- 
There are local legends and traditions, household tales, 
stories told by grandfathers and grandmothers, incidents 
remembered by "the oldest inhabitants." But above all in 
importance are the old documents and manuscript records of 
the first settlers, the early pioneers, the founders of our 
towns. Here are sources of information more authentic than 
tradition, and yet often entirely neglected. If teachers would 
simply make a few extracts from these unpublished records, 
they would soon have sufficient materials in their hands for 
elucidating local history to their pupils and fellow-townsmen. 
The publication of such extracts in the local paper is one of 
the best wa^'s to quicken local interest in matters of history. 
Biographies of "the first families," of the various ministers, 
doctors, lawyers, "Squires," "Generals," "Colonels," 
college graduates, school-teachers, and leading citizens, — 
these are all legitimate and pleasant means of kindling his- 
torical interest in the community and in the schools. The 
town fathers, the fathers of families, and all tlieir sons and 
daughters will quickly catch the bearings of this kind of his- 
torical study, for it takes hold upon the life of the community 



HISTORICAL STUDY. 131 

and quickens not oul}' pride iu the past but hope for the 
future. 

In order to study history' it is not necessary to liegin with 
dead men's bones, with Theban dynasties, the kings of 
Assyria, the roj-al families of Europe, or even with the presi- 
dents of the United States. These sulijects have their im- 
portance in certain connections, but for l)eginners-iu history 
there are perhap:^ other subjects of greater interest and vital- 
ity. The most natural entrance to a knowledge of the history 
of the world is from a local envu'onment through widening 
circles of interest, until, from the rising ground of the pres- 
ent, the broad horizon of the past comes clearly into view. 
There is hardly a sul)ject of contemporary interest which, if 
properly studied, will not carry the mind back to a remote 
antiquity, to historic relations as wide as the world itself. A 
stud}' of the community in which the student dwells will 
serve to connect that community not only with the origin 
and growth of the State and Nation, but with the mother- 
country, with the German fatherland, with village commu- 
nities throughout the Aryan world, — from Germany and 
Russia to old Greece and Rome ; from these classic lands to 
Persia and India. Such modern connections with the dis- 
tant Orient are more refreshing than the genealogy of Darius 
the son of Hystaspes. 

I would not be understood as disparaging ancient or old- 
world histor}-, for, if rightly taught, this is the most interesting 
of all history ; but I would be understood as emphasizing the 
importance of studying the antiquity which survives in the 
present and iu this country. America is not such a new 
world as it seems to many foreigners. Geologists tell us 
that our contiuent is the oldest of all. Historians like Mr. 
Freeman declare that if we want to see Old England we must 
go to New England. Old France survives in French Canada. 



132 SPECIAL METHODS OF 

In Virginia, peculiarities of the West Saxon dialect are 
still preserved. Professor James A. Harrison, of Lexing- 
ton, Virginia, writes me that in Louisiana and Mississippi, 
where upon old French and Spanish settlements the English 
finally planted, there arc *•' sometimes three traditions super- 
imposed one on the other." Men like George W. Cable and 
Charles Ga3-arr6 have been mining to good advantage in 
such historic strata. If American students and teachers are 
equally wise, they will look about then* own homes before 
visiting the land of Chaldaa. 

The main difficulty with existing methods of teaching his- 
tory seems to be that the subject is treated as a record of 
dead facts, and not as a living science. Pupils fail to realize 
the vital connection between the past and the present ; they 
do not understand that ancient history was the dawn of a 
light which is still shining on ; they do not grasp the essen- 
tial idea of history, which is the growing self-knowledge of a 
living, progressive age. Etymologically and practically, the 
study of history is simpl}' a learning by inquiry. According 
to Professor Droysen, who was one of the most eminent histo- 
rians in Berlin, the historical method is merely to understand 
by means of research. Now it seems entirel}' practicable for 
every teacher and student of history to promote, in a limited 
way, the '' know thyself " of the nineteenth century by orig- 
inal investigation of things not yet fully known, and ])y com- 
municating to others the results of his individual study. 
The pursuit of history may thus become an active instead of 
a passive process, — an increasing joy instead of a depressing 
burden. Students will thus learn that history is not entirely 
bound up in text-l)ooks ; that it does not consist altogether 
in what this or that learned authority has to sa}' about the 
world. What the world believes concerning itself, after all that 
men have written, and what the student thinks of the world. 



HISTORICAL STUDY. ISS 

after viewing it witli the aid of guide-books and with his own 
eyes, — these are matters of some moment in the developmental 
process of that active self-knowledge and philosophic reflec- 
tion which make history a living science instead of a museum 
of facts and of books "as dry as dust." Works of history, 
the so-called standard authorities, are likely- to become dead 
specimens of humanity unless they eontiinie in some way to 
quicken the living age. But written history seldom fails 
to accomplish this end, and even antiquated works often con- 
tinue their influence if viewed as progressive phases of human 
self-knowledge. Monuments and inscriptions can never grow 
old so long as the race is young. New meaning is put into 
ancient records ; fresh garlands are hung upon broken statues ; 
new temples are built from classic materials ; and the world 
rejoices at its constant self-renewal. 



Since the publication of the foregoing pages, in the first edition of 
this boolc, I have elsewhere described, in greater detail, certain special 
methods of historical study. The following abstract is taken from the 
"Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical and Political Science," 
Second Series, Numbers I. and II. "Methods of Historical Study," 
page 137 : — 

1. Tlie Topical Metliod. — If there is any guiding prin- 
ciple in the study of historical as well as of natural science, 
it is "The way to that which is general is through that 
which is special." It makes little difference with what class 
of facts the student begins, provided t\\&y are not too com- 
plex for easy apprehension. The point is that universal 
histor}' may be approached in a great variety of special 
ways, any one of which may be as good as another. They are 
like the Brahminical philosopher's idea of different religious 
revelations, — gates leading into the same city. All roads 



184 SPECIAL METHODS OF 

lead to Rome, and all roads lead to history. But while this 
general truth remains, it also remains true that there is a 
certain practical advantage in beginning historical study with 
that which is nearest and most familiar. A man's own 
family, community, country, and race, are the most natural 
objects of historical interest, because man is born into such 
associations, and because an historical knowledge of them 
will always be the most valuable form of historical culture, 
for these subjects most concern our own life, our past, pres- 
ent, and future. In history, as in biology, live specimens 
are usually better than dead ones. Life is of supreme 
interest to history, as it is to biology ; hence those nations 
and men that have made the present what it is will always 
be the l)est topics for historical study. 

I should be inclined to recommend, in beginning the study 
of history by any special method of approach, like the his- 
tory of America or the history of Egypt, that teacher and 
class begin work upon the geography of the United States, 
or of the Nile valley. Then, after a thorough consideration 
of the lay of the land, comes naturally the topic of the 
people, the first inhabitants. After the topics of a chosen 
land and of a chosen people should come the subject of the 
sources of that people's history. What memorials of them- 
selves have the primitive inhabitants of America or of 
Egypt left behind them ? It is of great importance in the 
pedagogical process of teaching history that the student 
should learn the origin of written history, how manuals and 
standard histories are constructed ; otherwise, the student 
will look upon the book or manual as a final authority. He 
should, on the contrary, look at all written history as simply 
a current, more or less colored l)y human prejudice, a cur- 
rent which has come down, like the Nile or the Mississippi, 
from some higher and luore original source than the passing 



HISTORICAL STUDY. 135 

stream. Such a consciousness leads the student to further 
inquiry, to a habit of mind like that of explorers who sought 
the sources of the Nile or of the Congo. 

Professor Moses Coit Tyler, of Cornell University, has 
prepared the following brief account of a special class- 
course, which admirably illustrates the topical method : 
" Perhaps it may be a peculiarity in my work as a teacher 
of History here that I am permitted to give my whole atten- 
tion to American history. At am' rate, this fact enables 
me to organize the work of American history' so as to cover, 
more perfectly than I could otherwise do, the whole field, 
from the prehistoric times of this continent down to the 
present, with a minuteness of attention varying, of course, 
as the importance of the particular topic varies. I confess 
that I adopt for American history the principle which Pro- 
fessor Seele}^, of Cambridge, is fond of applj-ing to English 
history, namely, that while history should be thoroughly 
scientific in its method, its object should be practical. To 
this extent I believe in history with a tendency. My in- 
terest in our own past is chiefly derived from my interest in 
our own present and future ; and I teach American history, 
not so much to make historians as to make citizens and good 
leaders for the State and the Nation. From this point of 
view, I decide upon the selection of historical topics for 
special study. At present I should describe them as the 
following : The native races, especially the Mound-builders 
and the North-American Indians ; the alleged Pre-Colum- 
bian discoveries ; the origin and enforcement of England's 
claim to North America, as against competing European 
nations ; the motives and methods of English colony-plant- 
ing in America in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries ; 
the development of ideas and institutions in the American 
colonies, with particular reference to religion, education, 



136 SPECIAL METHODS OF 

industry, and civil freedom ; the grounds of inter-colonial 
isolation and of inter-colonial fellowship ; the causes and 
progress of the movement for colonial independence ; the 
history of the formation of the national constitution ; the 
origin and growth of political parties under the constitution ; 
the history of slavery as a factor in American politics, cul- 
minating in the civil war of 1861-65. On all these subjects, 
I try to generate and preserve in myself and my pupils such 
an anxiety for the truth, that we shall prefer it even to 
national traditions or the idolatries of part3\ 

" As to methods of work, I doubt if I have anything to 
report that is peculiar to myself, or different from the usage 
of all teachers who try to keep abreast of the times. I am 
an eclectic. I have tried to learn all the current ways of 
doing this work, and have appropriated what I thought best 
suited to our own circumstances. As I have students of all 
grades, so my methods of work include the recitation, the 
lecture, and the seminary. I have found it impossible by 
the two former to keep my students from settling into a 
merely passive attitude ; it is only by the latter that I can 
get them into an attitude that is inquisitive, eager, critical, 
originating. My notion is that the lecturing must be recip- 
rocal. As I lecture to them, so must they lecture to me. 

" We are all students and all lecturers. The law of life 
with us is co-operation in the search after the truth of his- 
tory." 

2. The Com,2Xirative Method. — A great impulse was given 
to the historical sciences by the introduction of the compara- 
tive method into the study of philology, mythology, religion, 
law, and institutions. It seemed as though the horizon of 
all these fields suddenly widened, and as if the world of 
human thought and research were expanding into new 
realms. "Before the great discoveries of modern science," 



HISTORICAL STUDY. 137 

aays Freeman, "before that greatest of all its discoveries 
which has revealed to iis the imity of Aryan speech, of 
Aryan religion, and Aryan political life, the worn-out super- 
stitions about 'ancient' and ' modern' ought to pass by like 
the spectres of darkness. . . . The range of our political 
vision becomes wider when the application of the compara- 
tive method sets before us the ekklesia of Athens, the co7ni- 
tia of Rome, as institutions, not merely analogous, but 
absolutely the same thing, parts of the same common Aryan 
heritage, as the ancient assemblies of our own land. We 
carry on the tale as we see that it is out of those assemblies 
that our modern parliaments, our modern courts of justice, 
our modern pul)lic gatherings of every kind, have grown." 
("On the Study of History," Fortnightly Review, March 1, 
1881.) 

It would be a fine thing for American students, if, in 
studying special topics in the history of their own countly. 
they would occasionally compare the phases of historic truth 
here discovered with similar phases of discovery elsewhere ; 
if, for example, the colonial beginnings of North America 
should be compared with Aryan migrations westward into 
Greece and Italy, or again with the colonial systems of 
Greece and of the Roman Empire, or of the English Empire 
to-da}', which is continuing in South Africa and Australia 
and in Manitoba, the same old spirit of enterprise which 
colonized the Atlantic seaboard of North America. It 
would interest young minds to have parallels drawn between 
English colonies, Grecian commonwealths, Roman prov- 
inces, the United Cantons of Switzerland, and the United 
States of Holland. To be sure, these various topics would 
require considerable study on the part of teacher and pupil, 
but the fathers of the American constitution, Madison, 
Hamilton, and others, went over such ground in preparing 
the platform of our present fcMl(>r:d govennnent. 



138 SPECIAL METHODS OF 

But my special plea is for the application of the compara- 
tive method to the use of historical literature. Students 
should learu to view history iu different lights and from 
various standpoints. Instead of relying passively upon the 
ipse dixit of the school-master, or of the school-l)ook, or of 
some one historian, pupils should learn to judge for them- 
selves by comparing evidence. Of course some discretion 
should be exercised by the teacher in the case of young 
pupils ; but even children are attracted by different ver- 
sions of the same tale or legend, and catch at new points of 
interest with all the eagerness of original investigators. 
The scattered elements of fact or tradition should be brought 
together as children piece together the scattered lilocks of a 
map. The criterion of all truth, as well as of all art, is 
fitness. Comparison of different accounts of the same his- 
toric event would no more injure boys and girls than would 
a comparative study of the four gospels. On the contrary, 
such comparisons strengthen the judgment, and give it 
greater independence and stability. In teaching history, 
altogether too much stress has been laid, in many of our 
schools, upon mere forms of verbal expression in the text- 
book, as though historic truth consisted in the repetition of 
what some author had said. It would be far better for the 
student to read the same story in several different forms, 
and then to give his own version. The latter process would 
be an independent historical view based upon a variety of 
evidence. The memorizing of " words, words," prevents 
the assimilation of facts, and clogs the mental processes of 
reflection and private judgment. 

The prosecution of the comparative method in the study 
of history . requires an increase of facilities beyond the 
meagre text-books now in use. While by no means advo- 
cating the abolition of all manuals, chronologies, and gen- 



HISTOIIICAL STUDY. 139 

eral sketches of history, I would sti'ongly urge the estab- 
lishment of class-libraries for historical reference. This 
special practice would be quite in harmony with the growing 
custom of equipping public schools with special libraries. 
It is a practice which the interest of publishers and the 
good sense of all friends of education would tend to foster. 
At Smith College, Harvard College, and at the Johns Hop- 
kins ITniversit}-, the comparative method of study in history 
and other subjects has long been in operation. In Cam- 
bridge and in Baltimore, certain books are reserved from 
the main library of the university for class-use. In Balti- 
more, such reservations are occasionall}' supplemented by 
drafts on other libraries in the city, and by private contri- 
butions. The books are read in the university reading- 
room, but are taken out by special arrrangement, for a 
limited time, when there is no other demand. 

3. The Co-operative Method. — It is not possible, within 
the limits of this paper, to describe the development of that 
new system of writing history, which is based upon the 
economic principles of division of labor and final co-opera- 
tion. The time was when individual historians, monks and 
chroniclers, grappled boldly with the history of the whole 
world. There are still compilers of text-books for schools 
and colleges who attempt to epitomize the deeds of men 
from creation down to the present day. Indeed, the great- 
est of living historians, Leopold von Ranke, is now rapidly 
reviewing universal history in a woi'k which already em- 
braces several volumes, and which he hopes to finish soon, 
being now at the age of eighty-nine, so that be may resume 
more special work. But, in spite of this extraordinary 
example, which seems to def}' the weakness of age and the 
will of fate, it may be said with confidence that the day of 
universal histories by individual men is past. The day for 



140 SPECIAL METHODS OF 

the special and co-operative treatment of liistor}' by coun- 
tries, epochs, and monographic themes is ah-eady here. We 
see a co-operative tendency in the best school-books. The 
history even of a single nation is now recognized as too vast 
a thing for one man to handle in a truly scientific manner, 
although special results of individual research are still co- 
ordinated in popular ways. The most notable example of 
the co-operative method in universal history is the new mon- 
ographic history of the world, edited by Professor Wilhehn 
Oncken, but composed by the most eminent specialists in 
Gei-many. One man writes the history of Eg3-pt in the 
light of modern research ; another that of Persia ; a third 
reviews the history of Greece, giving the latest results of 
Grecian archaeological investigations ; others revise Roman 
history and the early history of Germanic peoples. 

This co-operative method has lately been applied in 
Schouberg's great work on political economy, and was 
applied many years ago to a dictionary of political science 
by the late Dr. J. C. Bluntschli, of Heidelburg. Under his 
editorial guidance, contril)utions were made by Frencli and 
German specialists to a great variety of subjects relating to 
European history and politics. Bhuitschli's example has 
l)een followed in this country b}' the publication of Lalor's 
'■Cyclopaedia of Political Science, Political Economy, and of 
the Political History of the United States." In America, the 
co-operative method of writing history has long been in 
quiet operation. Perhaps one of the earliest and most fruit- 
ful examples was that of the Massachusetts Historical So- 
ciety, which, in the latter part of the last century, began to 
encourage the writing of New England town history upon 
principles of local co-operation. The contributions of parish 
ministers and local antiquaries were publislied in the pro- 
ceedings of the society, and proved the humble beginnings 



HISTORICAL STUDY. 141 

of that remarkable series of town histories, which have now 
specialized the constitution of New England into a vast 
number of village republics, each one thought worth}- of 
independent treatment. Co-operation has entered even the 
local domain, e.g.-, the history of Boston, after passing 
through various individual hands, has lately been rewritten 
by a group of specialists, working under the editorial direc- 
tion of Professor Justin Winsor, of Harvard College. Tliis 
method is now proposed in Providence and other cities. It 
has been extended by Justin Winsor to the whole country, 
for the " Narrative and Critical History of the United 
States," which he is now editing, is made up of monographs 
by the best specialists that the country affords. 

The m'gent plea, then, for the co-operative method which 
I would make is this : apply it to the study of general history 
in classes. Experience at the Johns Hopkins University 
and at Smith College has shown the advantage of this 
method for classes with a short period of time at their com- 
mand, who nevertheless desire to cover a goodly stretch of 
historical territory. The metliod, in its practical operation, 
consists of a division of labor in a class guided b}^ an 
instructor, who undertakes to direct special work into co- 
operative channels. The student, while to some extent 
upon the common ground of text-books, or prescribed 
authors, and while taking notes upon class-lectures, of a 
special character, carries on investigations in close connec- 
tion with the general course. Written reports are submitted 
to a critic for correction, are read before an elocutionist for 
the sake of training in the art of presentation, and are then 
finally presented, either wholly or in part, to the class, who 
take notes and are examined upon these co-operative studies 
in the same way as on material presented by the instructor. 

An interesting and valuable [)ractice has gradually grown 



142 SPECIAL METHODS OF 

up among students of historical and political science at the 
Johns Hopkins University, namely, that of students lectur- 
ing to their own class upon subjects connected with the 
course. The practice oi'iginated several years ago among 
undergraduate students of history and international law ; 
it was the natural outgrowth of the topical method of study. 
It is a practice considerably different from that of reading 
formal essays, which often prove very burdensome to a class 
of intelligent pupils. The idea of oral reports with the aid 
of a brief or of a few notes, or, best of all, of an analysis 
written upon the blackboard, led the way to the preparation 
of a regular course of co-operative lectures b}' members of 
a class working conjointly with the instructor. Greater 
diguity was given to the efforts of students by asking them 
in turn to come to the front, to the map or blackboard, or 
else to the instructor's chair. For the time being the stu- 
dent became the teacher. Pretensions were seldom made to 
original investigations in preparing for such a class-lecture. 
The understanding was that students should collect the most 
authoritative information upon a given sul)ject, and present it 
to his fellows in an instructive way. This naturally implied 
the selection of the best points of view, and the omission of 
all irrelevant matter. The success of the lecturer turned, 
not upon his occupying the time by reading an encyclopedic 
article, but upon his kindling the interest of his classmates, 
and keeping their attention to the end. 

4. Tlie Seminary Method. — The Seminarium, like the 
college and the university, is of ecclesiastical origin. His- 
torically speaking, the seminary was a nursery of theology 
and a training-school for seminary priests. The modern 
theological seminary has evolved from the medineval institu- 
tion, and modern semiiiarj'-studcnts, whether at school or at 
the university, are only modifications of the earlier types. 



HISTORICAL STUDY. 143 

The Church herself earh- began the process of differentiat- 
ing the ecclesiastical seminary for the purposes of secular 
education. Preachers become teachers, and the propaganda 
of religion prepared the way for the propaganda of science. 
The seminary method of modern universities is merelj- the 
development of the old scholastic method of advancing 
philosophical inquiry by the defence of original theses. The 
seminary is still a training-school for doctors of philosophy ; 
but it has evolved from a nursery of dogma into a laboratory 
of scientific truth. 

The transformation of the Seminarium into a laboratory of 
science was first accomplished more than fifty years ago by 
Germany's greatest historian, Leopold von Ranke. He was 
born in the year 1795, and has been Professor of Histor}- at 
the University of Berlin since 1825. There, about 1830, he 
instituted those practical exercises in historical investigation 
(exercitationes histoncae) which developed a new school of 
historians. Such men as \V^aitz, Giesebrecht, "Wattenbach, 
Von Sybel, Adolph vSchmidt, and Duncker, owe their meth- 
ods to this father of historical science. Through the influ- 
ence of these scholars, the historical seminary has been 
extended throughout all the universities in German}-, and 
even to institutions beyond German borders. 



It is easy to outline a few external characteristics of the 
seminary at the Johns Hopkins University, but difficult to 
picture its inner life. Its workings are so complex and 
varied, that it cannot be confined within walls, or restricted 
to a single library. Its members are to be found, now in 
its own rooms, now at the Peabody Institute, or again in the 
library of the Maryland Historical Society. Sometimes its 
delegates may be seen in the libraries of Philadelphia, or in 



144 SPECIAL METHODS OF 

the Library of Congress, or in some parish registry of South 
Carolina, or in some town clerk's office in New England. 
One summer the president of the university found a Johns 
Hopkins student in Quebec studying French parishes and 
Canadian feudalism. The next summer, this same student, 
now a teacher in Washington, D.C., was visiting lona, and 
tramping through the parishes of England. He called by 
the wayside upon the English historian, Mr. Freeman, at his 
home in Somerset. Once the seminary sent a deputy in 
winter to a distant village community upon the extreme 
eastern point of Long Island, East Hampton, where he 
studied the history of the common lands at Montauk, with 
the queen of the Montauk Indians for his sovereign pro- 
tectress and chief cook. Half a dozen members of the 
seminary ha\'e gone off together on an archaeological excur- 
sion, for example, to an old Maryland parish, like St, 
John's, where lies the ruined town of Joppa, the original 
seat of Baltimore county ; or again, to North Point, the 
scene of an old battle-ground and the first site of St. Paul's, 
the original parish church of Baltimore ; and still again, to 
Annapolis, where, with a steam launch belonging to the 
Naval Academy, and under the guidance of a local anti- 
quary, they visited Greenberry's Point, upon the river 
Severn, the site of that ancient Puritan commonwealth 
which migrated from Virginia, and was originally called 
Providence, from which sprang the Puritan capital of Mary- 
laud. Reports of these archaeological excursions, written 
by members of the seminary connected with the Baltimore 
press, found their way into the public prints, and were read 
by many people in town and country, who thus became more 
deeply interested in the history of Maryland. 

The scientific sessions of the seminary, two hours each 
week, are probably the least of its work, for every member 



HISTORICAL STUDY. 145 

is engaged upon some , branch of special research, which 
occupies a vast amount of time. Researches are prosecuted 
upon the economic principles of division of labor and co- 
operation. This co-operation appears not merely in the 
inter-dependence of student-monographs, but in every-day 
student-life. A word is passed here, a hint is given there ; 
a new fact or reference, casually discovered by one man, is 
communicated to another to whom it is of more special 
interest ; a valuable book, found in some Baltimore library 
or antiquarian bookstore, is recommended, or purchased for 
a friend. These things, however, are only indications of 
that kindly spirit of co-operation which flows steadily on 
beneath the surface of student-life. 



One of the most interesting, if not the most valuable 
features of the seminary library, is the so-called newspaper 
bureau. This consists primarily of an office wherein the 
newspapers of the day are reduced to their lowest terms for 
purposes of historical and political science. Certain files 
are preserved for future reference ; but the great majorit3' of 
papers are cut to pieces for scientific purposes. A compe- 
tent force of graduate students work an hour or two each 
day, under direction, and mark superior articles upon eco- 
nomic, political, social, educational, legal, and historical 
sub;)ects. These marked papers are excerpted during the 
succeeding week by an office-boy, pasted upon thick sheets 
of brown paper, octave-size, indexed at the top, and 
arranged alphabetically in tlie so-called Woodruff File- 
holders, which are also used for the pamphlet. collections of 
the semiuar}^ The choicest extracts from a few leading 
papers, which are clipped almost as soon as they come, are 
placed upon special bulletin-boards devoted each to some 



146 SPECIAL INIETHODS OF HISTOIllCAL STUDY. 

one depuvtment. The sub-headings under whieli the various 
clippings are grouped are changed from week to week, when 
the old material is cleared off and a new lot tacked up. The 
idea is to exhibit the current topics for a week's time, in so 
far as they relate to the interests of the seminary. The 
young men Avho attend to these bulletin-boards for their 
fellow-students are learning not only critical and orderly 
methods, but also the potential process of making up a jour- 
nal of historical and political science. They are learning to 
be journalists and editors. Without professing to be a 
school of journalism, the seminary has furnished writers for 
each of the prominent papers in the city of Baltimore, and 
for some journals at a distance, while several of its members 
have secured editorial positions. 

In addition to its newspaper bureau, which is a valuable 
auxiliary in the study of contemporar}* politics, economics, 
socialism, etc., the seminary has devoted especial attention 
to the collection of statistical materials, documents illustrat- 
ing local, municipal, state, and national institutions ; also 
to the collection of maps, works of historical and political 
geography. The beginnings of an historical museum have 
also been made, so that students of histor}' find themselves 
surrounded by evidences of human progress from the ston« 
age to the newspaper. 



SEMINARY OF HISTORICAL AND POLITICAL SCIENCE. 147 



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A. Seminary Table with new booljs and current periodicals. 
— B. Lecture Rooms. — C. History Office. —D. Newspaper 
Bureau. — E. Economy Office. —F. Map Bureau, Historical 
and Physical Geography. — G. Statistics, Lavatory, Lift, 
Stairway to Library. — H. Bluntschli M8S. and Portrait; 
Lieber MSS. — I. Stairway to Library and Hopkins Hall.— 
J. Alcove of Ancient History. — K. Alcove of General His- 
tory. — L. Alcove of Economics. — M. Alcove of Adminis- 
tration. — N. Alcove of Political Science. — O. Alcove of 
International Law. — P. Alcove of State Laws and State His- 
tory. — Q. Alcove of English, German, Swiss, French, and 

Roman Law R. Librarian's Desk. — S. Desks of Fellows 

and Graduate Scholars. — T. Revolving Cases. — U. Library 
Bureau, Journals, bound vols. — V. Church History. — W. 
Hat and Cloak Room. — X. Public Documents, TT.S. — Y. His- 
torical Museum. — Z. Pamphlets, Miscellany and five Bulletin 
Boards. — a. Bulletin Board for Clippings. — h. Curd Cata- 
logue (Subjects and Authors). 



The Philosophy of the State and of History. 



Geokge S. Morris. 



THE ancient philosopher Heraclitus, in the fragmentary 
expressions of whose opinions, which alone are pre- 
served for us, the modern speculative philosopher and the 
physical evolutionist alike find so many germs of the com- 
monly received wisdom and of the scientific opinion of to- 
day, has left behind him one aphorism, the perception of the 
truth of which is the beginning of all wisdom for the student 
of history : -TroXvfxaOiq voov ov SiSda-Kei. " Multifarious learning 
does not instruct the mind." Nay, more, " much learning," 
taken merely by itself, is not only without educational or 
truly didactic value ; it not only fails to endow the learner 
with real understanding ; but, as was rightly implied in the 
address of the Roman governor to St. Paul, its tendency is 
to make one truly " mad." 

The first impression that the world of history produces in 
the mind of the learner is that of an indefinite multitude 
of different events. One event is not another. Each is a 
separate fact. Each has its separate place in space or time, 
or both. Each is what the others are not. To be cognizant 
of some or all of these facts, each in its own peculiar place 
in space and tune, and with its own peculiar individuality, 
is unquestionably the first mechanical condition of the ac- 
quisition of historical knowledge or science. Moreover, the 
circumstance that the facts in question are indeed different, 
that each new fact to be learned is indeed a novel fact, or, 
in some respect, sui, generis, contains in part the secret of 



150 THE PHILOSOPHY 

that necessary charm by which the mind of the student is 
led on from fact to fact, like the bee from flower to flower, 
and so is armed with endurance to continue till the end of 
the tale of "facts" is reached. But, to stop short with 
this cognizance of the multitude of facts in their separation 
and difference, not to see them in the unity of their relations, 
is not to learn the lesson of history. The mind thus simply 
filled, or crammed, is not instructed. Its sight is super- 
ficial ; it is not insight. And the world of history', thus 
viewed, is not comprehended as an orderly world. It is 
not a "rounded world" and "fair to see." It puts intel- 
ligence to confusion. It is, indeed, my masters, "a mad 
world " ! 

History is not simply (multifarious) events. It is the 
logic of events. Historic intelligence is not merely informa- 
tion respecting events. It is the comprehension of their 
logic. 

Philosophy may be fitly described as the science of wholes. 
In the last resort it is the science of the whole, as such, or 
of the one universal drama of existence in the midst of which 
man is placed, and in which he actively participates. Now, 
history, according to the familiar aphorism, is " philosophy 
teaching by example." Not the " example," taken by itself 
as an isolated fact, is history. Thus taken, it is only a 
l)rute fact divested of relations, and offering neither attrac- 
tion nor support to intelligence. History is the example, 
l)lus that which it exemplifies. It is the exam[)le, plus its 
teaching. It is the " fact" seen in the relations which alone 
render it com})rehensible. It is the fact seen as part or mem- 
ber of an organic whole, and, consequently, as exemplifying 
in its place and measure tlie law, idea, or life of the whole. 
It is, in short, the fact seen as the illustration and phenom- 
enal incarnation of a universal and livingl}- operative reason. 



OF THE STATE AND OP HISTORY. 151 

Logos, or logic, which, interior to the fact, is tlie ground of 
its reahty, and, transcending the particular fact, connects 
it with all other facts, and so is the ground of its intelligi- 
bility. History-, taken in its broadest sense, is the object- 
lesson of philosophy. It is the subject-matter of philosophy's 
demonstrations. It is tlie test of the correctness of her con- 
clusions. And true " history," in the narrower or more com- 
mon sense of this word, is nothing if not philosophical. 

Every successful teacher of }iistory,even with the youngest 
pupils, teaches in something of tlie philosophical spirit, and 
with a method more or less philosophical. He does not, 
indeed, neglect to insist on the acquisition, by patient 
mnemonic exercise, of exact information regarding parti- 
cular facts ; but he manages, at the same time, to engage 
the learner's imagination for the perception of groups of 
facts viewed as wholes, and having, as such wholes, to some 
degree, a specific character, coloring, or significance. He 
makes the pupil exercise, with himself, the artistic faculty 
of inward picturing. With innnature students this is all that 
is possible, and it is enough. (I place under the safeguard 
of a parenthesis the ominous and perhaps irritating question. 
How many really " successful teachers of history, even with 
the youngest pnpils," have we?) Ordinary college students, 
or undergraduates, who, in our commonly recognized dis- 
tinction of educational grades, are treated as not yet wholly 
mature and independent, but as on the highway and in the 
doorway to such maturity, may justly claim something more. 
In addition to the faculty of al)stract understanding, exer- 
cised in the exact and reflective discrimination and memor- 
izing of facts, and the faculty of picturing imagination, which 
groups facts before the eye of the mind, as it were in larger 
visible wholes, that higher potency of imagination, which 
may be most exactly described as the synthetic reason, and 



152 THE PHILOSOPHY 

for which the pictures of history possess not merely the ex- 
ternal unity of visilile wholes, but also the inward, dynamic 
unity of self-realizing law, idea, purpose, should he ap- 
pealed to, and so, at least in some measure, trained in the 
appreciation of what we will here call historic truths (note 
the plural). Just how, and in what measure, this should be 
done, I will not and need not now attempt to determine. 
But I do not in tlie slightest hesitate to declare my conviction, 
that the university student — the graduate student, or he 
who, if not technically a graduate, is held to be sufficiently 
advanced to be permitted to pursue his studies under the 
specifically university regime — should, on the one hand, be 
privileged and assisted, and, on the other, required to exer- 
cise his faculty of " s3-nthetic reason " in the fullest possible 
degree. In other words, in whatever department the special 
subject of his studies may lie, whether history, language, 
literature, mathematics, or the physical and natural sciences, 
he should be expected to accompany his study of and search 
for particular truths and orders of truths (the truths belong- 
ing to his "special subject") with the study of and search 
for the trutli, tlie universal truth, to which all special orders 
of truths or " sciences," and orders of " science," are organ- 
ically related ; in which, as in an universal organism, they 
are all concretely one, "members one of another," and in 
the light of which alone the science of each becomes com- 
plete. Otherwise expressed, the university student sliould 
pursue, and should lie taught and aided to pursue, his sub- 
ject, however "special" and, at first sight, remote from 
philosopliy it may seem to be, philosophically. And by this 
I mean that he should pay, and be directed and aided to 
pay, express and prolonged attention to the specific and 
universal problems of philosophy, considered both in them- 
selves and in their relation and application to the subject of 



OF THE STATE Ai\D OF HISTORY. 153 

his special studies. He should, in the broadest and strictest 
sense, comprehend the philosophy of his subject. He who 
does less than this is a "university student" only in name 
and outward appearance, no matter where or how long he 
ma}- have been enrolled as such a student, or amid what 
plaudits he may have been crowned with the (in this case 
deceptive) degree of "Doctor of Philosophy" ... I do 
not, of course, stop to point out in detail how the require- 
ment just insisted on is involved in the very conception of a 
university, as indicated among other things by the name 
" University " itself. 

The justice of the requirement above mentioned is a thing 
which it should be easy enough to demonstrate in its relation 
to any of the departments of university work. It is particu- 
larly obvious in its relation to the department of history- . 

What is the universal truth ; the truth of all truths ; the 
truth in which all truths are united, and which reveals and 
realizes itself in them all ; the truth of which all other truths 
are, in their place and kind, the concrete manifestation and 
evidence, and of which philosophy is the universal science? 
The answer that philosophy, in its most substantial and com- 
plete forms, whether ancient or modern, gives to this ques- 
tion, is perfectlv expressed in the words of one of those 
writers whom the Christian world has termed sacred, "The 
Spirit is truth." All truth is truth of spirit. All reality is 
spiritually conditioned. All being has its roots in a spiritual 
life by which its form and nature and substance are de- 
termined. Spirit is universal, self-conscious reason. "What- 
ever," therefore, "is real is rational." Spirit is dynamic, 
living, concrete, and is the source and soul of law. What- 
ever is real, therefore, bears the same marks and illustrates 
the "reign of law" or of reason. 

The spirit, or living self-conscious reason, which is the 



154 THE PHILOSOPHY 

universal truth, is not the liuman spirit, but it is, if this ex- 
pression may liere be allowed, the truth of the human spirit. 
The latter "• lives, moves, and has its being" in the former. 
The spii'it of man realizes its own essential nature only so 
far as it realizes in itself the " image " of the absolute spirit. 
The reason of man accomplishes its noruial function in the 
knowledge of the truth only so far as, to use Kepler's grand 
expression, it " thinks the thoughts of God," and that by a 
process whereby it illustrates and actualizes its organic de- 
pendence upon, and so far its organic unity with, the uni- 
versal spirit. The sufficiency of the individual to think, to 
think truly, to think and know the truth, is of God, of that 
absolute and concretely universal or omnipresent " spirit," 
which of all things is " the truth." This relation is, of 
course, not one in which the activity of the individual reason 
is suspended or rendered useless. It is the rather condi- 
tioned on the fullest and freest activity of the individual. 

It will now be seen how j[)liilosophy, which is defined as 
the science of the universal truth, can also be called the 
science of self-conscious reason. It may well be considered 
as a common-place of philosophic science, that the fund- 
amental, or "ground-laying" pai"t of philosoph}', is the 
science of intelligence or knowledge. Philosoi)liy demon- 
strates that the essential and all-determining nature of 
intelligence is to be self-conscious reason. And it also 
demonstrates that true self -consciousness is something that 
transcends the individual, being realized, only through the 
"objective" consciousness and progressive knowledge of 
the whole universe of dependent existence, and in organic 
dependence on an universal and absolute self -consciousness. 

The universal self-consciousness, or reason, of man, which 
is the characteristically spiritual side of man's being, is also 
the essential side. It is by this and in this that man is 



OF THE STATE AND OF HISTOKY. 155 

truly man. Viewed on this side of his being, man is not a 
wholly completed actuality. He is not fully himself. He 
has not realized in full all the potentialities of his nature. 
He is to himself an ideal, a problem. In the progressive, 
active approximation to the ideal in question, or solution of 
the problem, man first comes to himself, and, in a measure, 
truly is himself. The activity by which he accomplishes 
this end is two-fold, theoretical and practical ; theoretical, 
consisting, through the develo[mient of universal science, in 
the augmentation of his knowledge of himself and of his 
own possibilities ; and practical, consisting in activities con- 
ditioned by this knowledge, and directed toward the use of 
the powers of nature and the ordering of human relations, 
in magno and in parco, so that the possibilities mentioned 
may be more fully actualized. 

These activities now are the immediate substance or the 
present active factoi's of histor}'. The growingly self-con- 
scious iutelligence, which conditions and directs them, is the 
soul of history. Their end is the erection on earth of a 
realm of the spirit, which is a true " kingdom of heaven " 
or of God, and in which man gradually comes into the in- 
dependent possession of his true and substantial freedom 
through the theoretic apprehension and practical realization 
of " the truth." History is the realm of man, and the realm 
of man is the realm of the spirit. How, then, shall not 
history be philosophical ? How shall it not ])e ' ' philosophy 
teaching by example " ? And how shall he be pronounced a 
''Doctor" of history who has not comprehended history as 
[)hilosoi)hy thus teaching? 

In the college, let the student, by all means, study and 
learn "histories"; and in the university, let not these be 
forgotten or neglected. But, above all things, and as the 
one thing indispensably needful, let the student here study 



156 THE PHILOSOPHY 

and learn history. Let him see and know man in history, 
and through this knowledge let him see the absolute spirit in 
history. 

But, it may be said, there are many well-known and not 
uuinfluential philosophizers who contend that a true science 
of knowledge reveals man as possessing no other and higher 
categories with which to proceed to the comprehension of 
the whole world of reality, whether natural or moral, than 
the purely mechanical and sensibly conditioned ones of ab- 
stract mathematical and physical science, and that he is 
incapable of possessing any others. The interpretation of 
history then becomes for them simply equivalent to the solu- 
tion of a problem in "moral" mechanics. History is, indeed, 
held to be one whole and a moving whole ; but it is a whole, 
all of whose strictly knowable and scientifically determinable 
attributes really belong to the physical order of things alone ; 
and it is a whole which, both as a whole and in all its parts, 
moves on automatically and without freedom according to 
simple mechanical laws, following everywhere the line of 
least resistance and greatest traction, and exemplifying 
some such general law as (say) that of universal evolution 
and dissolution ... In reply, I say that I am unable to 
perceive that the champions of the foregoing theory are 
acquainted with the whole science of knowledge, or that 
thc}^ have once profoundly and faithfully studied the chief 
works which now belong to the history of philosophic science, 
and comprehended the lesson they contain. In so far, if my 
perception is correct, their opinions are deficient in value. 
But, supposing them to be wholly in the right, it must be 
allowed that they are but fulfilling an intrinsic and inde- 
feasible requirement of historic science in seeking to found, 
on the basis of their mechanical conceptions, a philosophic 
interpretation of universal history. And, on the same 



OF THE STATE AND OF HISTORY. 157 

supposition, it would be tiie duty of the university student 
of history to follow in their steps. The undergraduate 
student of history, for example, might conceivably be one 
of those accumulators who bring statistical grist to Mr. 
Spencer's mill. But it would be the duty and privilege of 
the university student to raise himself to the intellectual 
plane of the great miller himself ; he should, in spirit, be 
a Spencer or a Buckle. Philosophy of some kind there must 
be ; for philosophy is, in conception, nothing but the science 
of the whole, and, without such science, all other science — 
the science or knowledge of parts — remains incomplete, lack- 
ing connection, and confused. And if the philosophy that 
one have, or that one find current, be unfortunately one- 
sided, alistract, and inhospitable toward certain sides of 
that whole world of actuality, which it is the sole business 
of philosophy to comprehend, yet one must accept it, and 
apply it as far as it will go, and so make the best of it. Of 
course, it is the business of a university to see to it that 
philosophy is, within its precincts, comprehended, prose- 
cuted, and taught without such defects as those just named. 
I hasten to add that, when this is done, the relative ti-uth, 
and, within its peculiar bounds, the important truth of the 
mechanical philosophy in its application to the moral world, 
which includes the world of histor}', will be fully recognized. 
No one can shut his eyes to the mechanical aspect which be- 
longs to all events, whatsoever, that occur within the bounds 
and under the forms of space and time, including, there- 
fore, the events of history. But the eye of really concrete, 
catholic, and all-embracing philosophic science, sees that 
the mechanical aspect of events is only an aspect ; that the 
whole event, in any case under consideration, includes more 
than this aspect; and that the science, or "philosophy," 
which regards only this aspect, is abstract ; that it abstracts 



158 THE PHILOSOPHY 

from something else in the event which is essential ; and that 
it is, therefore, from the point of view of complete philosophy, 
fragmentary, partial, " one-sided." Trne philosophy per- 
ceives that, throughout the universe of living existence — and 
this, subject to exact definitions, must be conceived as equi- 
valent to the whole actual universe — the mechanical is con- 
ditioned by and logically posterior to the organic ; the dead 
is the product of the living, the phenomenal of the noumenal. 
I trust I have made it sufficiently evident that the ex- 
pression " philosophy of history-" points to a real problem 
of essential importance for the student of history, and tliat I 
have sufficiently indicated what the true scope of the problem 
in general is. I have said nothing of the great advance made 
by historians during the last century in the philosophic treat- 
ment of their subjects, nor of the pains which great his- 
torians have thought it not unimportant to take to equip 
themselves for their work by careful training in specifically 
philosophic studies. There are many signs that the times 
are ripe, or ripening, for a more extensive introduction of 
the philosophic element into the treatment of history in this 
country. The most obvious of these is perhaps to be found 
in the rapid development and adoption of university methods 
at a number of our educational centres during the last ten or 
a dozen years. The true " university conception," if I may 
so express it, has but recently made its appearance among us ; 
and it has evidently come to stay. And this phenomenon, by 
what cannot be considered as an accidental coincidence, is 
accompanied by (or shall I rather say accompanies ?) a new 
and growing sense of the nature of the problems which are 
strictly peculiar to philosophy, and of their essential connec- 
tion witli tliat true and complete ideal of a scientifically cul- 
tured intelligence, which must serve as lodestone and guid- 
ing-star to all "•higher education." Further, we have now 



OF THE STATE AND OF HISTORY. 159 

passed the boundary of the first century of our existence as 
an independent nation. We are, as a people, now engaged 
in a confused struggle with the problem of our own national 
self-consciousness. We want to know what is the spirit that 
is in us as a nation. We must know this, in order to be 
properly- master of ourselves and of our destiny. We must 
know this, in order to know our place in universal history, 
in order to appreciate the special task that falls to us in the 
solution of that universal problem of the full realization of 
man, of humanity " standing complete and wanting nothing," 
at which, whether blindly or consciously, all nations and 
peoples are at work, and their work upon which constitutes 
the living and essential substance of history. Our politicians 
need this, that the}' may become statesmen. And both states- 
men and people need this, the former, in order that their 
labor may be truly constructive and enduring ; and the lat- 
ter, in order that they may willingly cooperate in the pursuit 
and realization of true political ideals. Here, then, is a 
a place where theorj-, in the broadest sense of this term, or 
the best work of intelligence, comes in contact with actuality. 
Here is a " living question" imperatively demanding prac- 
tical solution, and where none but the best and broadest and 
deepest intelligence can safely serve. And it does seem as 
if the time had come when the university, conceived in the 
most liberal sense as the home and the seat of the activity of 
the highest intelligence, should become the radiating source 
and centre of ideal, and so of most truh^ practical, influences, 
by which the constructive work of the nation shall be posi- 
tively furthered, and the ideal substance of the national life 
enriched. That our university workers in political science 
and history, applying themselves to their task with philo- 
sophic spirit and method, will contribute to the realization 



160 THE PHILOSOPHY 

of a state of things, so much to be desired, no one should have 
any doubt. 

And now for a few practical suggestions. For how, an 
interested party will naturally ask, shall I go about to study 
and teach the philosophy of history ? I confess freely that 
the bank-account of my own experience in this matter is not 
plethoric, and that of my observation of others' work is still 
less so. Such as I have, with some diffidence, I will attempt 
to give. 

It will be noticed that I have placed at the head of this 
article, as its title, "The Philosophy of the State and of 
History." Every one will readily perceive the reason for 
this. For though, as Droysen says, and as I have otherwise 
substantially expressed it in the foregoing essay, " the sub- 
ject of history is the universal Ego of humanit}-," or " his- 
tory is the yvw6i aavTov of humanity, its moral self -conscious- 
ness " ; yet the concrete form in which this snl)ject lies before 
the historian and student of history is that of social organ- 
izations or of states. 

Of course, nothing can take the place, in the outfit of the 
student of the philosophy of the state and of history, of a 
previous course of careful training in the several "disci- 
plines," or " subjects " (logic, both " formal " and " real," 
psychology, ethics, etc.), which belong to philosophy proper, 
and in the history of philosophy ; and, in agreement with the 
views above expressed, such training, in an university com- 
pletely organized and educationally equipped, would have to 
be insisted on. But now we will not, for we cannot, presup- 
pose that this requirement has been fulfilled. As a substi- 
tute, I would propose to a student that he read carefully 
(say) the little book by Edwin Wallace, entitled "Outlines 
of the Philosophy of Aristotle " (Cambridge and London, 
third ed., 1883 ; pp. xi., 130). This work gives an epitome. 



OF THE STATE AKD OF HISTORY. 161 

with proof-texts in Greek, of logic, metaphysic, philosophy 
of nature, psychology, moral philosophy, political philosophy, 
and philosophy of art, in as many different chapters, and ac- 
cording to the best and ripest conceptions of ancient thought. 
Of all of these conceptions, that is true which is commonly 
said of Aristotle's logic in particular, viz., that, though an- 
tique, they can never become antiquated. The student gets, 
from the perusal of this epitome, a correct notion, as far as 
it goes, of the relation of political philosophy to philosophy in 
general, or of its place in the organism of philosophic science. 
I sa}' " as far as it goes," for, as will be observed, no place 
is given in Aristotle's scheme to the philosophy of history, a 
subject to which the philosophy of the state is most inti- 
mately allied, but which, for obvious reasons, could scarcely 
be developed as a distinct discipline before modern times. 

In tlie same spirit, I would heartily recommend the "'Essays 
in Philosophical Criticism," edited by Seth & Haldane (Lon- 
don, 1883). This book, in my judgment, must be a great 
help to those who would get their bearings with reference to 
most of the leading subjects of philosophy, in the light of 
the best modern discussion. The student of the philosophy 
of the State and of history will be specially helped by the 
essays on "The Historical Method," by W. R. Sorley ; "The 
Rationality of History," by D. G. Ritchie ; and " The Social 
Organism," by Henry Jones. 

Commendation no less hearty is to be given to the " Grun- 
driss der Historik," von Joh. Gust. Droysen (Leipzig, thii'd 
ed., 1882 ; pp. vi., 44). To this are added, as an appendix, 
two essays on the ' ' Elevation of History to the Rank of a 
Science," reviewing Buckle's "History of Civilization in 
England," and on "Art and Method," by which the num- 
ber of pages is increased to 90. A good translation of the 
" Gi'undriss " into English would. T should think, be one of 



162 THE THILOSOPHY 

the best services that could be rendered for the promotion of 
the pliiiosophical study of history. 

In teaching, now, tlie subjects we are considering, I would 
begin with the pliilosoph}- of the state. And in treating this 
topic, my method is to begin with the consideration of that 
order of theories which is apparently simplest, and which 
also, in the order of development of theories in modern times, 
stands conspicuously first in time. 

All theories of the state may be philosophically classed in 
two groups. The one of these contains those theories which 
contemplate the state, either exclusively or prevailingly, from 
a physical or " natural" point of view, in accordance with a 
purely mechanical conception of the universe, or of omne 
scibile. The other will include theories which regard the 
state prixnarily and fundamentall}' from a spiritualistic and 
ethical point of view. Or, briefly, in the theories of the one 
group a mechanical and phj'sical conception of the state 
is represented ; and in those of the other, an organic and 
idealistic. The former conception has, at first sight, the 
apparent advantage in respect of simplicity and intelli- 
gibility. 

From the first group, then, and for the purpose of first 
studying and illustrating the mechanical conception, or 
"philosophy," of the state, I select the "Civil Philo- 
soph}-" of Thomas Hobbes ("De Give" and "Leviathan") 
and the politico-philosophical writings of Mr. Herbert Spen- 
cer (chiefly his " Social Statics" and "Principles of Socio- 
logy ") . In what respects the work of Hobbes is cruder and 
ruder than that of Spencer, how abhorrent to the latter are 
some of the positions of the former, and what concession 
Mr. Spencer -himself makes in his own works, at least in 
appearance, to the demands of the organic conception of the 
state, is well known, or may be easily learned, and has, 



OF THE STATE AND OF HISTORY. 163 

of course, in the progress of our study or teaching, to be 
duly recognized. It still remains that the lines of fun- 
damental, or of quasi-philosopliical agreement, are such as 
are implied in the classification of these two theorizers in 
the same group. From the works named I select such prin- 
ciples, or statements of principles, as are fundamental, and 
then seek to exhibit them, and to engage my students to 
study and comprehend them, ])oth in themselves and in their 
collective relation to the subject-matter — the state — which 
they are invoked to explain. If it then appears, as I think 
it must, that these principles are essentially inadequate, we 
are prepared to go forward and trj- wliether the theories of 
the other group are any more complete, and so nearer to the 
whole truth. 

For those who are inclined to go further in the direction 
previously considered, and study the mechanical conception 
of the state in the light of modern socialistic theories founded 
upon it, the literature at command is abundant. The press, 
in certain quarters, teems with it. And one will be sure to 
find appropriate material among the books and pamphlets 
included in the " Bibliothdque Socialiste," published at Paris 
b}' Henry Oriol. 

From works belonging to the second group, I am accus- 
tomed to select for consideration and study Aristotle's 
" Politics " and Hegel's "Philosophic des Rechts." These 
two works ma}', I think, justly be regarded as representing 
the high-watermark — the one in ancient times, and the 
other in modern — in the treatment of the philosophical 
conception of the state. Aristotle, certainly, cannot be 
wholly antiquated, for so true a child of the modern en- 
lightenment as Mr. Frederick Pollock, has recently, in rela- 
tion to this very matter of political philosophy, raised the 
very sane cry, " back to Aristotle." And of Hegel's work, 



1G4 THE PHILOSOPHY 

that remains true, in spite of all its unquestionable infirmities, 
which is said of it by Adolf Lasson in his own recently- 
published "System der Rechtsphilosophie " (Berlin, 1882, 
p. 104), that its place is in " the foremost rank of the class- 
ical productions of the science of all times." Of the several 
translations of Aristotle's " Politics," the latest one, by J. E. 
C. Welldon (London: Macmillan & Co., 1883), is most at- 
tractive. Mr. A. C. Bradley has an essay on "Aristotle's 
Conception of the State," in " Ilellenica," edited by E. Ab- 
bott (London, 1880). Hegel's "Philosophic des Ilechts"has 
not been translated into P^nglish. An essay entitled "Hegel's 
Philosophy of Right" was published in the volume of " Ox- 
ford Essays" (1855). In vol. VI. of the "Journal of Specu- 
lative Philosophy," edited by W. T. Harris, will be found a 
translation of the brief summary of the Philosophy of Right, 
as contained in Hegel's " Philosophic des Geistes." A criti- 
cal exposition of Hegel's ' ' Philosophy of the State and of 
History" will be published in the series of " German Philo- 
sophical Classics for English Readers and Students," pub- 
lished by S, C. Griggs & Co., Chicago. The dynamic con- 
ceptions of Aristotle and Hegel, being much less abstract 
and, in this respect, sim^jle than those of Hobbes and 
Spencer, require, , for their adequate appreciation, longer 
study and a greater amount of time devoted to the detail 
of didactic exposition. In cases where German cannot be 
used, the work entitled "The Nation," by Elisha Mulford, 
LL.D. (New York, 1877), may be employed as a substitute 
for Hegel's "Philosophic des Reclits." In any case, the 
study of Dr. Mulford's book is to be most strongly urged. 

On the history of political philosophy I name the following- 
works : — 

Paul Janet, " Histoire de la Philosophic morale et poli- 
tique dans I'antiquit^ et les temps modernes " (Paris, 18G0 ; 



OF THE STATE AND OF HISTORY. 165 

second edition, revised nnd enlarged, under the title " His- 
toire de la science politique dans ses rapports avec la mo- 
rale," 1872) . This book is clearly written, with an abundance 
of French ban sens, and from the point of view of the best 
French type of philosophical spiritualisme. The author con- 
siders no writer after the time of Kant. 

Frederick Pollock, "The History of the Science of Poli- 
tics " (New York, 1883 ; No. 42 of the " Humboldt Library" ; 
reprinted from the "Fortnightly Review," Aug., 1882, to 
Jan., 1883). This little work will be of value in enabling 
the student to familiarize himself with a considerable num- 
ber of names prominently connected with the development 
of political philosophy iu ancient and modern times. It is 
most valuable for its very sympathetic exposition of the 
doctrine of Aristotle and its account of the gist of Eng- 
lish discussions. Spencer is excluded from the surve}^ and 
so are all Continental writers of the last hundred years. 

J. C. Bluntschli, " Geschichte der neueren Staatswissen- 
schaft. AUgemeines Staatsrecht und Politik seit dem IG. 
Jahrhundert bis zur Gegenwart" (Leipzig & Miinchen, 
third ed., 1881). This book, as the title indicates, deals 
only with the political philosophy of modern times. In 
treating of Hegel's " Philosophic des Rechts," the author is 
so stern to point out its confessed limitations, that the reader 
is in danger of being blinded to the fact of the far-reach- 
ing identity, in point of substantial content, which subsists 
between the fundamental conceptions of the critic himself 
and of him who is tlie object of his criticism. 

Passing now to the philosophy of history, I am unable to 
give an}' counsel founded on personal exi)erience or observa- 
tion. If one were disposed to repeat or imitate the method 
suggested above, one might. I should sai)i)ose, well begin 
with Buckle's "History of Civilization in Endaud." Though 



160 THE PHILOSOPHY OF STATE AND HISTORY. 

the field cboseu for consideration in this work is restricted to 
England, ^et this need not be a drawback. It may the rather 
be even an advantage, since it enables the student to judge 
the value and adequacy of the purely "mechanical concep- 
tion" for the philosophic comprehension of history, applied 
in a field with which he is likely to be more familiar than 
with any other outside his own country. 

I name as a work, in which the whole course of human 
history is treated from the materialistic point of view, F. von 
Hellwald's " Culturgeschichte in ihrer natiirlichen P^ntwicke- 
lung bis zur Gegenwart." 

Advancing now to the other, and, as I call it, larger point 
of view, to that of the organic conception of human histor}', 
I should take up the " Philosophic der Geschichte " of Hegel. 
Of this work a fairly good translation has been furnished by 
J. Sibree, A.M. (" Lectures on the Philosophy of History," 
in Bohn's "Philosophical Library," Loudon, 18G1). The 
most considerable systematic elaboration that the subject, 
so far as I. have noticed, has received since the time of 
Hegel, is contained in Conrad Hermann's "Philosophic der 
Geschichte" (Leipzig, 1870). A work of still broader scope 
and treatment is M. Carriere's "Die Kunst im Zusammer- 
hang der Culturentwickeluug " (Leipzig, 18G3-1871). 

Ro])ert Flint, in "The Philosophy of History in France 
and Germany" (London, 1874), gives a critical review of 
French and Gerinan works relating to our subject. He is, 
in my judgment, most successful in his appreciation of the 
eflTorts of the French and of some of the earlier Germans. 
The best German philosophy is beyond him. 



THE COURSES OF STUDY IN HISTORY, ROMAN 

LAW, AND POLITICAL ECONOMY, AT 

HARVARD UNIVERSITY/ 



Bt Henry E. Scott, Harvard University. 

A DESCRIPTION of the ground covered and of the 
-^^^ methods used in the various courses in History and 
Political Science at Harvard must necessarily be preceded by 
a brief statement of the circumstances under which these 
studies are pursued there. 

In the first place, all the courses offered in these branches 
— and in almost all other branches as well — are purely elec- 
tive. The University requires each year a certain amount 
of work from every undergraduate who is a candidate for the 
degree of Bachelor of Arts ; but, with the exception of about 
two-fifths of the work of the Freshman year, ^ud certain 
prescribed written exercises in English in the Sophomore, 
Junior and Senior years, the undergraduate has full liberty 
to select any course in any subject which his previous train- 
ing qualifies him to pursue. The courses in History and in 
Political Science may therefore be elected by any under- 
graduate, by the Freshman as well as l)y the Senior ; and 
they are also, it may be added, open to the students of the 
various professional schools embraced in the University, to 
resident graduates, and to special students whether graduates 
or not. 



1 In the preparation of the followins article, the writer lias been greatly 
assisted by the instructors in the several courses described, and their state- 
ments have been incorporated in the text with but little change. 



168 COURSES OF STUDY IN HISTORY 

In order to provide suitable recognition for those students 
who have confined their college work to one or two special 
fields, Honors of two grades — Honors and Highest Honors 
— are awarded at graduation in almost all branches in which 
instruction is offered. The candidate for Honors in Historj 
or in Political Science must have taken in the department 
selected six full courses or their equivalent, /.e., he must 
have devoted to it about one-half of his last three years as 
an undergraduate, four full courses or their equivalent being 
the amount of elective work required each jcixx of Sopho- 
mores, Juniors, and Seniors ; and he must have passed with 
great credit the regular examinations in those courses, and 
also, shortly before Commencement, a special examination 
covering all the six courses in question. Students who do 
not care to specialize to the extent necessary to obtain 
Honors can yet, by doing creditably about one-half as much 
work (/.c, by taking three full courses) in any one subject, 
receive at graduation Honorable Mention in that subject. 

To pursue with advantage studies in History or in Political 
Science, the student must have easy access to books ; and, 
in order to place within his reach the principal sources, au- 
thorities, and other helps necessary for the study of a given 
course, the system of "reserved books" was established 
some years ago in the Harvard College Library. The in- 
structors in the various departments request the Library 
authorities to place upon the shelves of certain alcoves, as- 
signed for this purpose in the reading-room of the Library, 
the books used by their classes for collateral reading and 
reference. The books thus reserved can be taken from the 
shelves by the students themselves without the formality of 
oral or written orders, and can be consulted in the Library 
during the day. At the close of library hours, they may, 
if properly charged, be taken out for the ensuing night only, 



AT HARVARD UNIVERSITY. 169 

the borrowers promising to return them at 9 a.m. the next 
day. The right to use the reserved books is not limited to 
those students who take the particular course for which cer- 
tain books have been reserved, but all persons entitled to the 
privileges of the Library are likewise entitled to use all the 
reserved books, the purpose of the system being not to with- 
draw the works from general use for the benefit of a narrow 
circle, but rather so to regulate their use that the greatest 
possible number of students may be able to consult them. 
Persons engaged in special investigations can, if necessary, 
. obtain cards of admission to the shelves where the material 
they wish to use is stored ; but, for the ordinary student, 
the reserved books, together with those ordered from the 
Library in the usual way, are sufficient. 

The courses of instruction which are now to be described 
are classified — as are all courses offered in the College — as 
courses or half -courses, according to the amount of work re- 
quired of the student and the number of exercises a week, a 
course having either three or two exercises a week, a half- 
course either two or one.' Some of the courses are given 
every year, others every two years, others twice in three 
years. The more advanced courses can be taken only by 
special permission of the instructors, to obtain which stu- 
dents must give evidence of their ability to do the work 
expected of thcni. There are announced this year (1884- 
85) in the official pamphlet sixteen courses and two half- 
courses in History, one course and two half -courses in Roman 
Law, and four courses and four half-courses in Political 
Economy. There are actuall}' gi^'eu this year eleven courses 
and two half-courses in History, one course in Roman Law, 
and four courses and three half-courses in Political Economy, 

1 In the following descrii)tiou the half-courses are especially designated 
as such. 



170 COURSES OF STUDY IN HISTORY 

the remainiug courses being omitted in accordance with the 
arrangements mentioned above or for special reasons. The 
average number of hours of instruction per week devoted 
this year to History is thirty ; to Roman Law, thi'ee ; to Politi- 
cal Economy, fifteen. 

THE COURSES IN HISTORY. 

The courses in History are not laid out on the assumption 
that any one student will elect all or even the greater part of 
them. They are themselves an historical growth rather than 
the result of a scheme. New courses have been added from 
time to time as the needs of the students and the means of 
the College wai-rauted, each course as a rule covering a 
field which some unity of interest or some series of related 
movements seemed to mark out as suitable ground for con- 
nected study. Courses so built up must inevitably cross 
each other at various points, with an appearance of more or 
less confusion ; nevertheless it is believed they are better 
adapted to the needs of the students than a more systemati- 
cally arranged list would be. 

HiSTOKY 1 (Mediffival and Modern European History, two 
hours a week, Assistant-Professor Macvane) is an elemen- 
tary course serving as an introduction to Courses 7, 8, 9, 10, 
and 1 1 , and covering the history of Europe from the fall of the 
Roman Empire. In so wide a field, the work is necessarily 
of a very general character, the principal aim being to trace 
as clearly as possible the changes and stages through which 
Europe has jjassed in reaching its modern condition. The 
only countries for which a connected outline of political his- 
tor}' is attempted are England, France, and Germany. 

The course is designed for two classes of students : first, 
for those who intend to give a considerable amount of atten- 
tion to history while in college ; for these it serves as an 



AT HARVARD UNIVERSITY. 171 

introduction, as a general view of the whole field of mediae- 
val and modern history ; they are enabled to enter later on 
the study of selected portions or periods with some feel- 
ing of acquaintance with the surroundings. They also get 
some practice in using historical books and in dealing with 
historical terms and ideas. Secondly, the course is designed 
for students whose serious college work lies in other depart- 
ments, who yet wish to acquire some general knowledge of 
history. There is, for the most part, no text-book, nor is 
there any attempt at recitations. Several books are usually 
designated for each country or period ; and each student is 
allowed to choose from these the one best suited to his aims 
or to the amount of time at his disposal for the work. A 
certain portion of ground is laid out in advance for each ex- 
ercise ; and the instructor goes over this in a general way 
with the class, answering questions, pointing out relations 
and connections, explaining terms, and bringing into promi- 
nence the more important points of the narrative. A good 
deal of attention is given to historical geography. 

HiSTOKY 2 (Constitutional Government in England and 
the United States, three hours a week for the first half-year, 
coiuiting as a half -course, Assistant-Professor Macvane) is 
designed as an introduction to Courses 12, 13, and 14, i.e., 
to the study of modern constitutional government. Atten- 
tion is chiefly directed to the present condition and prac- 
tical working of English and American institutions ; but the 
more prominent features of the French and German constitu- 
tions are also noted. The comparative method is followed 
wherever possible. The work done in the class-room is 
a combination of lecture and conference. Each member of 
the class is expected to procure either Amos's "Primer of 
the English Constitution" or Foublanque's "How we are 
Governed " ; and a pamphlet is printed for the use of the 



172 COURSES OF STUDY IN HISTORY 

class, containing a syllabus of the course, together with the 
Articles of Confederation, the Constitution, and a number 
of selections from books, magazine articles, etc. The main 
objects in view are to prepare students for the profitable 
study of American and of modern European history, and to 
awaken an intelligent interest in the problems of constitu- 
tional government, both here and in other countries. 

History 3. Roman History to the Fall of the Republic, 
with especial refei-ence to the Development of Political In- 
stitutions in Greece and Rome, two hours a week. 

HiSTOKY 4. Later Roman and Early Mediaeval History 
(from Augustus to Charlemagne) , with especial reference to 
institutions, two or three hours a week (at the pleasure of 
the instructor) . 

History 8. Constitutional and Legal History of France 
to the Sixteenth Century, two or three hours a week (at the 
pleasure of the instructor) . 

These courses (all of them given by Professor Gurney) , 
while covering each a period having a distinct and independ- 
ent interest of its own, are designed to furnish in their se- 
quence a study of the development of society, of political, 
legal, and economic institutions, and in outline, too, of moral 
and intellectual conditions as manifested in religious beliefs, 
philosophy, and literature, from the cradle of patriarchal 
existence among the ancestors of the Greeks and Italians 
to the old age of a Byzantine civilization ; and, again, to the 
repetition of this development under the greatly changed con- 
ditions produced by the legacies of Mediterranean civiliza- 
tion, from the primitive German society described by Cfesar 
and Tacitus to the reflection of imperial Rome which may 
be traced in the administration, law, literature, and art of 
France in the time of the early Renaissance. 

In Course 3 this development is followed for the Roman 



AT HARVAKD UNIVERSITY. 173 

state from the first glimpses which we obtain, by the aid of 
philology, of its Indo-Europeau ancestors to the point at 
which, after the conquest of the ancient world, the overtaxed 
energies of municipal government succumb, and the repub- 
lican type of rule begins to merge in the imperial. Though 
the history proper of Greece forms no part of this course, 
the political and legal institutions of the Greeks, especially 
the Spartan and Athenian constitutions, and, at a later day, 
the first serious efforts of men at federation in the Achsean 
League, are all treated in detail for the light they throw upon 
the parallel Roman development. A secondary object of 
Course 3 is to qualify a student of the classics to read a 
book of Livy, or a public oration of Demosthenes, with 
somewhat the same background of information with which 
he would take up Bancroft or Burke. 

Course 4, which deals with the whole period from Au- 
gustus to Charlemagne, falls naturally- into two parts ; in 
one of which, ending perhaps as well at the death of Theo- 
dosius the Great as at any other point, the interest continues 
predominately Roman, and the development of society is in 
every sense the sequel of Course 3 ; in the other the interest 
is predominately German ; the subject of study is German 
institutions, and the processes and results of the combina- 
tions of these with existent Roman institutions and tenden- 
cies within the territories of the Empire, and especially in 
Gaul. Either half of this course may easily be pursued 
separately. 

In Course 8, an investigation is made of the centrifugal 
forces which led to the disruption of the Carolingian Empire, 
and to the dispersion of authority which we know as the 
Feudal System. Upon a study of the institutions and work- 
ing of that system in France, follows naturally the main 
subject of the course, the gradual reassertion of the royal 



174 COUESES OP" STUDY IN HISTORY 

authority over ever wider territory, aud to ever more complete 
exclusion of all other authority, until the irresistible control 
of Louis XI. and his successors is reached, and, in large 
measure on the lines of Roman models, the framework is 
erected for the still more perfect structure of absolutism of 
the seve'nteenth century. 

As these courses cover long periods of time — some seven 
hundred years each — the student is not expected to acquire 
a detailed knowledge of events. An account is given him 
of the best books accessible, great and small, upon the whole 
period and parts of it ; but the scale on which he couducts 
his reading is left to his taste and discretion. The instructor, 
from time to time, tries to aid the student in acquiring a just 
historical perspective by remarks upon the relative import- 
ance of events, and upon such connections between them as 
might easily be missed ; biit, otherwise, he does not concern 
himself with the narrative history, except when consulted. 
The chief original authorities are mentioned and character- 
ized, but no investigations in them are demanded. The 
history of institutions, on the other hand, is given by the 
instructor in informal lectures, with constant opportunity 
and encouragement for interruption on the part of the stu- 
dent for questions and discussion. The best works on the 
subject are described and reserved in the Library for the 
student's use ; but for tliis part of the course he may, if he 
chooses, rely on thj lectures alone. As these courses are 
conducted for the general student of history, no work upon 
the s<mrces, Greek, Latin, or old French, could wisely be 
exacted. It is hoped, liowever, that subsidiary half-courses 
may be connected with them, so that properly qualified 
students may have op[)ortunity and encouragement to be- 
come themselves investigators. 

In History 7 (The General History of Europe from the 



AT HARVARD UNIVERSITY. 175 

beginning of the Ninth to the end of the Thirteenth Century, 
two hours a week, Mr. Scott) the title does not state cor- 
rectly the clu'onological limits of the course, or the ground 
covered by it. It really deals with the political and consti- 
tutional history of Continental Europe from the rise of the 
Carolingian line of Frankish kings to the fall of the emperors 
of the House of Staufeu, England being omitted entirely, 
and France, too, receiving but little attention in comparison 
with Germany and Italy, since both England and France are 
provided for in special courses. As a necessary introduction, 
a rapid survey is taken of the institutions of the primitive 
Germans ; and this is followed by a more detailed account 
of the constitutional and legal S3stem that arose from the 
mixture of German and Roman elements in the kingdom of 
the Merovingians. "With the Carolingian period the real 
work of the course begins, the Frankish Monarchy and the 
Mediaeval Empire forming naturally the centres of interest 
around which the remaining historical phenomena are grouped. 
In the class-room, the instructor endeavors to call attention 
to the points of view from which the events under considera- 
tion may be most advantageously studied, aud to the relation 
in which these events stand to those that have gone before 
and to those that are to follow ; but the details of political 
history are usually left to be worked out by the students them- 
selves, while, on the other hand, the development of institu- 
tions is treated at length by means of lectures. An account 
of the principal sources for the history of each period is 
given, the most valuable modern works are mentioned, and 
specific references are made, from time to time, to these 
works and to important historical articles in periodicals. 
The students are questioned frequently and encouraged to 
ask questions, in order that the instructor ma}- satisfy him- 
self of the nature of their work, and that any special ditB- 
culties which they meet may be, if possible, removed. 



176 COURSES OF STUDY IN HISTORY 

History 9 (three hours a week, Assistaut-Prof essor Young) 
takes up the Coustitutioual aud Legal History of Eugland 
to the Sixteenth Century. The work in the ekxss-rooui con- 
sists of lectures by the instructor, and of translations and 
explanations of extracts from Stubhs' " Select Charters," 
which, together with Stubbs' '' Constitutional History," may 
be said to serve as a text-book. Students are also encom'aged, 
but uot required, to write theses on special topics. 

The lecturer treats the whole subject by periods (Primitive 
Germany ; the Anglo-Saxou, Prankish, Norman, and Anglo- 
Norman periods ; Henry 11. to John ; Magna Carta ; Henry 
III. and Edward I. ; Edward I. to Henry VII.) and by topics 
within each period, the study of each period being preceded 
by a general bibliography of that period, and of each topic 
by a special bibliography of that topic. The references for 
collateral reading are of two sorts, those which every student 
is expected to read as a preparation for examination, and 
those designed for students who take a special interest in any 
topic, and wish to make it the subject of special study. 

The object of the lectures is (1) to give a more detailed 
account of some subjects than is to be found in the ordinary 
text-books (for example, of the institutions of the primitive 
Germans ; the classes of society and influence of the land- 
system on the social development in the Anglo-Saxon period ; 
the Prankish and Norman development ; the legal reforms of 
Henry II. ; the reception of the Roman law in England, etc.) ; 
(2) to give a different view of some subjects from that taken 
by the English writers (for example, of the effect of the Nor- 
man Conquest on English constitutional development) ; (3) to 
arrange the subject-matter in a more convenient form. 

Of the documents contained in Stubbs' " Charters," sub- 
stantially all to the close of the reign of Henry II. are read 
(some of the special customs, some of the historical extracts 
and the Dialogus de Scaccario are omitted), together with 



AT HARVARD UNIVERSITY. 177 

selections from the documeuts of the reigns of Richard I., 
John, Henry III., and Edward I. 

History 6 (The Legal Institutions of the Franks and the 
Anglo-Saxons, two hours a week, Assistant-Professor Young), 
an advanced course in medijeval institutions, is designed (1) 
to teach the student the methods, and to acquaint him with 
the results so far attained of the new science of " Early 
Comparative Jurisprudence " ; and for this purpose the fol- 
lowing topics are studied : Origin of the family, of the state, 
of law, of courts, of judicial procedure, of criminal law, of 
property, and of contract ; (2) to show the results so far 
attained by students of early German and Frankish law, and 
the methods used to attain them. In this connection, a study 
is made of legal sources, courts, procedure, criminal law, 
family law and law of inheritance, law of property, and law 
of contract ; the Frankish legal sources, and especially the 
Lex Salica and the Ccqjitida legi Salicae acldita being critically 
examined in the class ; (3) to apply the knowledge thus ob- 
tained of methods and results to the study of the Anglo- 
Saxon law. As this is a course for advanced and special 
study, every student is required to write a thesis on some 
topic of Anglo-Saxon law, a thesis based upon an inde- 
pendent examination of Anglo-Saxon legal sources. 

It is hoped that the course may some time be extended to 
include the Norman and the Anglo-Norman institutions. It 
is given from a conviction that English legal history is yet 
to be written, that this cannot be done until many special 
investigations have been made, and that these can profitably 
be made only by those familiar with the methods and results 
of the Germanists. 

History 5 [Church History 1]. The Conflict of Chris- 
tianity with Paganism to the Eighth Century, two hours a 
week. 

History 10 [Church History 2]. History of the Pro- 



178 COURSES OF STUDY IN HISTORY 

testant Refoniiation and the Roman Catholic Reaction, two 
hours a week. 

Church History 3. History of Christian Doctrines, two 
hours a week. 

History 17 [Church History 4]. Practice in the Study 
and Use of Historical Sources, once a week (two hours). 

These four courses, given by Professor Emerton, are, in 
so far as they deal with ecclesiastical history, arranged with 
a view (1) to separate as far as possible the History of 
Doctrines from that of the outward life of the Church, and 
(2) to bring out into prominence the critical moments in this 
outward life rather than to attempt an}- comprehensive review 
of the whole subject. Course 5 deals with the formative 
period of Christianity. The purpose here is to show how 
the church organization grew up with the empire until the 
two became co-extensive, then to connect the Germanic in- 
fluence in the empire with the form taken by the Church in 
the life of the Middle Ages. The reign of Charlemagne, 
in which these various tendencies reach the form thej' were 
to maintain during the whole following mediasval period, 
properly closes this course. 

Course 10 treats of the second great critical period, when 
the forms of mediaeval are changing to those of modern 
society. Beginning with the awakening energy of the indi- 
vidual mind in the fourteenth century, the various phases of 
this revival in literature, art, law, commerce, politics, and 
religion are treated as preparing the way for the protest of 
Luther. The religious revolt is traced from its earliest signs 
in the Italian Humanists, through ^V'iclif, Hus, Savonarola, 
and the Mystics, to Luther and Calvin. Finally, the reac- 
tion of Rome against the Reform, as shown in the Order of 
Jesuits, the Inquisition, and the Council of Trent, is followed 
to the point where the conditions of modern Church History 
appear firmly established. 



AT HARVARD UNIVERSITY. 179 

Church History 3 is confined strictly to the history of doc- 
trines, presupposing a general knowledge of the progress of 
the Church as an organization. But as in the earlier courses 
frequent reference to the doctrinal development was neces- 
sary, so here the student is constantly reminded of the reac- 
tion of politics upon the doctrine. It is believed that in this 
way a more tliorough understanding of the essential connec- 
tion between these two phases of church life can be gained 
than by attem})ting to treat them botli at once, with the risk 
of continual confusion. The system of doctrines is con- 
sidered as a development through the efforts of men to reach 
a solution of the problems suggested or revived by the teach- 
ing of Jesus. 

All of these courses are conducted by means of lectures 
with occasional oral reviews, and, in Courses 10 and Church 
History 3, with the writing of theses upon topics connected 
with the course, selected by the student and approved by the 
instructor. 

History 17 is a practice-course on the principle of the 
German Seminarium. Its purpose is to introduce the stu- 
dent into the methods of historical investigation and com- 
position. The work consists mainly of inquiry into points 
of historical detail from original sources, together with the 
interpretation of some original document before the class. 

In History 11 (European History during the Seventeenth 
Century and the first half of the Eighteenth, three hours a 
week. Assistant Professor Macvane) attention is mainly 
confined to England, France, and Germany. English affairs 
occupy about half of the time. No uniform method of in- 
struction is followed in all parts of the course, the instructor 
holding that, in teaching history, method must depend partly 
on the nature of the period and topic under treatment, partly 
on the quality of the books and other helps available for 
the students, partly on the size and character of the class. 



180 COURSES OF STUDY IN HISTORY 

111 the main, the chiss-room exercises in this course are 
designed to open up the field, to bring into reUef the more 
important features of it, and to aid the members of the class 
with suggestions as to their reading. An effort is made to 
show the significance of the great social, political, and relig- 
ious movements of each period, to bring historical events as 
far as possilile into living connection with their causes, and 
to point oat from time to time the manner in which the move- 
ments of one country have reacted on the affairs of other 
countries. Special study is given to the growth and working 
of institutions, especially in England, Hallam's "Constitu- 
tional History" (beginning with Chapter VI.) forming an 
integral part of the course. References are given from time 
to time to the most notable passages in the works reserved 
in the Library for the use of the class, the aim here being as 
much to beget an acquaintance with historical literature and 
a taste for the study of it, as to aid in the present acquisition 
of historical knowledge. 

History 12 (European History from the Middle of the 
Eighteenth Century, three hours a week. Assistant Profes- 
sor Macvane) is, in all essential respects, a continuation of 
Course 11, and is conducted on the same general plan. The 
proportions are different, however, considerably more time 
being devoted to Continental history than is the case in 11. 
The institutions of the Old Regime in France ; the causes 
and course of the French Revolution, and of the later changes 
in France ; the effects of the French Revolution upon the 
other countries of Europe ; the German Federation, and the 
recent reorganization of Germany under Prussia's leader- 
ship ; the consolidation of Italy into one kingdom, and the 
changed position of the Papacy ; the growth of Russia, and 
the varying phases of the "Eastern Question"; — these, 
and many other topics, claim attention in the attempt to 
treat the recent history of the Continent. Time, however. 



AT HARVARD UNIVERSITY. 181 

is found to deal with tlie chief incidents of English history 
since the accession of George III. The attempt by George 
III. to revive personal government, the character and histor}' 
of the various ministries, the full development of cabinet 
government, the reform of Parliament, the reform of the 
criminal laws and of the judicial system, Catholic Emanci- 
pation, the Irish land question, and other similar topics, are 
studied with more or less thoroughness. 

In History 14 (Forms of Government and Political Con- 
stitutions, particularl}' in Continental Europe, since 1789, two 
hours a week, Assistant-Professor Macvane i) the various 
constitutions are studied in connection with the circum- 
stances under which they were adopted. Attention is given 
to the composition of the representative bodies ; the relations 
between the legislative bodies and the executive ; the methods 
and extent of popular control over the government ; the posi- 
tion of the ministers ; the progress of cabinet government ; 
parliamentary procedure ; the relations ].)etween local and 
central authorities ; the federal systems of Europe ; the 
composition and jurisdiction of the chief courts, etc. The 
method of comparative study is followed ; the institutions of 
each country being brought into comparison, or contrast, with 
the corresponding institutions of other countries. 

[For the courses in American History, numbered 18 and 13, see the 
separate article by tlie instructor on pp. 1-31.] 

History 15 (Elements of Public International Law, two 
hours a week, Professor Torrey ; Periods and Leading Events 
in Diplomatic History, oue hour a week. Dr. Channing) con- 
sists of two distinct parts, — neither of which can be taken 
without the other, — and is 'designed for those students 
only who have shown creditable progress in their previous 

1 For the year 1S84-S5 only. The course is regularly given by Professor 
Torrey. 



182 COURSES OF STUDY IN HISTORY 

studies. As the classes are small, a close personal relation 
is established between teachers and students. 

In the former part of the course, the lectures take largely 
the shape of a free commentary on Woolsey's " International 
Law " ; but the bibliography of the su])ject is treated at 
length ; and, in dealing with the principles, the important 
points are illustrated by references to leading writers, — 
such as Wheaton, Twiss, Hall, and Bluntschli, — and by 
extracts from their works. Particular attention is paid to 
weighty decisions (especially of English and American 
courts) ; questions in which the United States have been 
involved are discussed, the manner of dealing with concrete 
cases under the Constitution and laws is explained, and the 
bearing of the rules of International Law on questions of 
present interest is pointed out. 

The second part of th;> course deals with the leading events 
in the diplomatic history of the last two hundred and fifty 
years. An analysis of each period, with a limited number of 
specific references, is written on the Ijoard as a foundation 
for the student's reading. Tlie lecturer narrates the events 
leading to each important treaty, gives a bibliograpliy of the 
treaty itself, together with some biographical account of the 
negotiators, and takes up in detail its chief provisions ; con- 
siderable use being made of Woolsey's valuable synopsis of 
political treaties. From the beginning of the course geo- 
graphy receives especial attention, and a thorough knowl- 
edge of the physical conformation of Europe is insisted upon. 
The last four lectures are devoted to the territorial develop- 
ment of the United States, and are given in the College 
Library, where contemporary^ maps and other material can 
be used for purposes of illustration. 

History 16 (Studies in the Comparative History of Reli- 
gions, — particularly the Vedic, the later Brahmanic, the 
Buddhist, the Mazdean, and the Chinese ; two hours a 



AT HAKVAED UNIVERSITY. 183 

week, counting as a half-course, Professor Everett), al- 
though properl}- classified as an historical course, might as 
])roperly be called philosophical ; for it is really a study 
of the philosoi)hy of religion. It begins with a brief study 
of the religion of savages ; then certain religions are treated 
that have in a marked degree a philosophical l)asis, and these 
are grouped according to psychological relations. The at- 
tempt is made to bring out the philosophical significance of 
each religion, special attention lieing given to Hindu philos- 
ophy. On the other hand, the outward form, and, to some 
extent, the histor}- of the different religions, must be pre- 
sented ; and this involves historical detail. 

The instruction is given by means of lectures, supported 
at every point by reference to translations and other author- 
ities ; the most important of the works referred to being 
placed in the reference-room of the Divinity-School Library. 

THE COURSES IN EOMAN LAW. 

Roman Law 1 (History and Institutes of Roman Law ; 
Institutes of Gains and Justinian, omitting the Law of In- 
heritance ; three hours a week, Assistant-Professor Young) 
is an elementary course, covering the whole body of Roman 
private law, with the exception of the Law of Inheritance 
(see Roman Law 3), and mainly designed to give to the 
historical student some familiarity with fundamental legal 
notions (a familiarity, the need and value of which will be 
recognized by every teacher of history) . After a brief ac- 
count of the history of the legal sources, and of the general 
course of Roman legal development, the instructor, follow- 
ing the arrangement of topics adopted by Gains and Justin- 
ian, describes the historical development of each legal 
institution, and states the principal rules of laAv relating to 
it. Tlie i)assages in the Institutes of Gains and Justinian 
whicli bear on the subject are then translated and discussed 



184 COURSES OF STUDY IN ROMAN LAW 

in the class (Gneist's " Institutionum et regularum juris 
Romani syntagma " being used as a text-book) , and refer- 
ences, which every student is expected to read, are occasion- 
ally made to the Digest. Every student is expected to follow 
the course in some elementary treatise on the subject, and 
for this purpose the following books are recommended : — in 
English, Moyle's ''Institutes" (much the best), Poste's 
" Gaius,"' or Hunter's " Roman Law" ; in French, the trea- 
tises of Maynz (the best) , Van Wetter, or Demangeat ; in 
German, Puchta or Marezoll. 

Roman IjOtw 2 (The Law of Property ; selections from 
the Digest ; one hour a week counting as a half-course, 
Assistant-Professor Young) is intended for advanced study 
in some special department of the law. The subject of the 
course ma}' be varied from year to year, so that a student 
may elect it in successive years, stud3'ing, for example, in 
one year the Law of Obligations, and in another the Law of 
Property. 

In Roman Law 3 (The Law of Inheritance ; Institutes of 
Gains and Justinian ; selections from the Digest ; three 
hours every two weeks, counting as a half -course, Professor 
Gurnet) the principal features of the Law of Inheritance are 
studied, especial attention being given to the Roman Law of 
Wills. The portions of the Institutes of Gains and Justinian 
bearing on the subject are first gone over in the class-room, 
and after the outlines of the subject are thus fixed, select 
passages from the Digest are assigned to be read by the 
class for the purpose of filling uj) the outline to the extent 
that time permits, the more difficult passages being inter- 
preted by the instructor, and the hours of meeting being 
devoted to informal lectures on the part of the teacher, and 
to questions and discussions on the part of the students. 



AT HARVARD UNIVERSITY. 185 

THE COURSES IN POLITICAL ECONOMY. 

Political EcoNoarr 1 (Mill's " Principles of Political 
Economy " ; Lectures on Banking and the Financial Legis- 
lation of the United States ; three hours a week, Professor 
DuNCAR and Assistant-Professor Laughlin) is designed (1) 
to provide for those students who intend to continue their 
economic studies for more than one year a suitable introduc- 
tion to the elementary principles of the science, and their 
application to questions of practical interest ; and (2) to 
furnish students whose time is chiefly devoted to other 
departments of study with that general knowledge of and 
training in Political Economy which all men of liberal educa- 
tion should desire. It has, therefore, its theoretical and its 
practical side. In the present year (1884-85) the new edi- 
tion of Mill, prepared by Professor Laughlin, serves as a 
text-book for the main part of the course, and the remaining 
time is occupied by lectures on the elements of banking and 
the public finance of the United States (especially in the last 
quarter of a century) . The instructor holds that for a course 
in the elements of Political Economy, where it is eminently 
desirable that the student should assimilate principles rather 
than memorize explanations of each subject, neither the reci- 
tation system nor the lecture system is best fitted, but that a 
judicious mixture of both is necessary ; for the object of the 
instruction is in general not merely to give men facts, but to 
lead them to think. The text-book is supposed to furnish to 
the student a clear statement of the principles that are to be 
taken up at a given exercise. Then in the class-room the 
instructor, by questions, and by di-awiug the men into dis- 
cussion and the free expression of difficulties, endeavors as 
much as possible to fix the knowledge of princii^les in the 
mind of the students, and to direct their attention to the 
workings of these principle's in concrete cases. Graphic 



186 COURSES OF STUDY IN POLITICAL ECONOMY 

representations of facts (such, for example, as are given by 
the charts in the text-book referred to) are often used to 
make the relation between theory and practice still clearer ; 
and statements from the newspapers in regard to economic 
matters are sometimes read in the class-room, in order to test 
the student's ability in applying abstract principles to the 
affairs of every-day life. To give the students practice in 
making accurate statements, questions are now and then 
written on the blackboard and answered in writing within 
fifteen minutes, and at the next hour these answers are criti- 
cised and discussed. 

In the lectures on the elements of banking and finance in 
the latter part of the year, the three functions of banking — 
deposit, issue, and discount — are illustrated by references 
to the system of National Banks, of the old United States 
Banks, and of the Bank of England ; and the sub-treasury 
system, the national debt, the methods of raising revenue 
during the war, the issue of legal tender paper, the resump- 
tion of specie payments, etc., are some of the topics dis- 
cussed. Professor Dunbar's pamphlet entitled "Extracts 
from the Laws of the United States relating to Currency and 
Finance " serving as a basis for the lectures on finance. 

Political Economy 2 (History of Economic Theory — 
Examination of Selections from Leading "Writers, three 
hours a week, Professor Dunbar) was in former years con-' 
ducted 1>y taking up, in the earlier part of the year, Cairnes's 
" Leading Principles," and, in the later part, some book of 
which the discussion and criticism would bring out more 
clearly the meaning of the generally accepted doctrines. 
Carey's "Social Science," George's "Progress and Pov- 
erty," Shadwell's "Principles" — books which put the 
"orthodox" student in a defensive attitude — were used 
for this purpose. In addition, lectures were given on the 
history of political economy, and on examples of the work- 



AT HARVARD UNIVERSITY. 187 

ing in practice of its principles, such as the working of 
the principles of international trade in the payment of 
the Franco-German indemnity in 1871-73, the commercial 
crisis of 1857, etc. 

For the present year (1884-85) the course is remodelled. 
Nothing in tlie nature of a text-book is used. The subject 
is treated by topics. Such questions as the wages-fund con- 
troversy, the theory of international trade, the method of 
political economy, the theory of value, are to be taken up in 
succession. On each toi)ic references to leading writers will 
be submitted to the students for examination and discussion. 
On the wages-fund question, for example, Mill's retractation 
in the " P^ortnightly Review" of his original views, Cairnes's 
restatement of the theory, F. A. Walker's position as found 
in his "Wages Question" and his "Political Economy," 
George's criticism of current views in "Progress and Pov- 
erty " will be read and discussed. The history of political 
economy is to be taken up in a similar way, by reference to 
characteristic extracts from the writings of the Ph^^siocrats, 
Adam Smith, Malthus, Ricardo, Senior, Say, Bastidt, and 
their successors and critics in England and on the Con- 
tinent. These extracts, read beforehand by the students 
and discussed in the class-room, will be supplemented by the 
comments and explanations of the instructor. By this method 
it is hoped that some familiarity with the literature of the 
subject will be obtained, as well as a more exact comprehen- 
sion of its doctrines than can come from an elementary study 
like that of Course 1. 

In Political Economy 3 (Discussion of Practical Eco- 
nomic Questions — Lectures and Theses, three hours a week, 
Assistant-Professor Laugiilin) it is expected that the stu- 
dent, who is supposed now to have grasped firmly the general 
l)rinciples of political economy l)y at least one j'ear's previous 
study, will apply these [)rinciples to the work of examining 



188 COURSES OF STUDY IN POLITICAL ECONOMY 

some of the prominent questions of the day, such as the 
navigation laws and American shipping, bimetallism, reci- 
procity with Canada, government and national bank issues, 
etc. At the beginning of each topic a general outline of the 
subject and its principal divisions is given b}' the instructor, 
together with more or less particular references to the most 
important authorities ; but a complete list of books is not 
always furnished, the student being rather encouraged to 
hunt for material himself. The exercise in the class-room 
takes the form rather of a discussion than a formal lecture, 
references to authorities being given previous to each meet- 
ing, as the following examples will show : — 

Standards of Value, see Jevons, " Money and the Mechanism of 
Exchange," chaps, iii, xxv ; S. Dana Horton, " GoM and Silver," 
chap, iv, p. 36; F. A. Walker, "Political Economy," pp. 363-368, 
" Money, Trade, and Industry," pp. 50-77 ; Wolowski, " L'Or et 
I'Argent," pp. 7, 22, 207; Mill, "Principles of Political Economy," 
book iii, chap, xv ; Walras, "Journal des Economistes," October, 
1882, pp. 5-13. 

The third hour of the week (and also the mid-year ex- 
amination) can be omitted by men who promise to prepare 
one considerable thesis (due in April) on a subject connected 
with some practical question of the day which has not been 
discussed in the class-room. Examples of such subjects are : 
the warehousing system ; a commercial treaty with Mexico ; 
the public land S3'stem ; the remedy for our surplus of reve- 
nue ; municipal taxation ; characteristics of socialism in the 
United States ; co-operation in the United States (productive 
and distributive co-operation, industrial partnerships, and co- 
operative banks) ; advantages and disadvantages of small 
holdings. 

Political Economt 4 (Economic History of Europe and 
America since the .Seven Years' War, three hours a week. 
Professor Dunbar) serves to connect Political Economy with 



AT HARVAED UNIVERSITY. 189 

History. It requires no previous study of Political Economy, 
although some historical knowledge of the period is presup- 
posed. Among the more prominent subjects taken up are : 
the rise of the modern manufacturing system, more particu- 
larly in cottons, woolens, iron ; the steam engine ; the eco- 
nomic effects of American Independence and of the French 
Revolution ; the factory system ; the migration of labor ; 
improved transportation by railroads and steamships ; the 
application of liberal ideas to international trade ; the new 
gold of California and Australia ; the economic effects of the 
Civil War in the United States ; American grain in Europe ; 
the Suez Canal; the crisis of 1873, and commercial crises in 
general ; the development of banking ; and the resumption 
of specie payments in the United States. 

The course is chiefly narrative, and is carried on by lec- 
tures, supplemented by references for collateral reading. A 
printed list of topics is distributed to the students, containing 
a summary' of the lectures and references to books reserved 
in the Library. An extract from this list will most clearly 
indicate its character and purpose. It gives the topics and 
references for the first lecture on the new gold supply : — 

Lecture XL VII. — The discovery of gold m California : 
" Robinson's California " (see Larkin's and Mason's Reports, pp. 
17, 33); also Exec. Doc. of U. S., 1848, i, 1. — The discovery in Aus- 
tralia : Westgarth, " Colony of Victoria," 122, 315. — Establishment 
of miners' customs : "^Vood, " Sixteen Months in the Gold Diggings," 
125 ; Lalor's " CyclopcTedia," ii, 851. — Increased supjily of precious 
metals in sixteenth and seventeenth centm'ies small in proportion 
to that in nineteenth century : Soetbeer, " Edelmetall-Production " 
(in Petermann's " Mittheilungen "), Plate 3 ; " Walker on Money," 
Part I, chaps, vii, viii. — The discoveries of 1818 and 1851 needed to 
give effect to influences already stinmlating trade and commerce. 

Similar topics and references are given for each of the 
eighty or ninety lectures. 



190 COURSES OF STUDY IN POLITICAL ECONOMY 

lu Political Economy 5 (Economic Effects of Land Ten- 
ures in England, Ireland, France, and Germany — Lectures 
and Theses, one hour a week, counting as a half-course, 
Assistant-Professor Laugiilin) a branch of the science that 
has been Init slightly considered in Course 1 is taken up, 
and, as in the other })ractical courses, an attempt is made to 
apply principles to facts. The following extract from the 
official pamphlet, describing the courses of study in Political 
Economy, will indicate the ground covered : — 

" This course covers tlie questions now of political importance in 
England, Ireland, France, and Germany in their economic aspects, 
and embraces the following subjects : — In England : the land laws; 
relative position of landlord, tenant, and laborer in the last one 
hundred years ; tenant-right ; leases ; prices and importation of 
grain ; repeal of the corn-laws ; American competition ; peasant 
proprietorship. In Ireland : the ancient tribal customs ; English 
conquests ; relations of landlord and tenant ; security of tenure ; 
Ulster tenant-right ; absenteeism ; parliamentary legislation ; acts 
of 1809, 1870, 1881, 188'2 ; population ; prices of food and labor. 
In France : feudal burdens on land ; relation of classes, and con- 
dition of peasantry and agriculture before the Revolution ; small 
holdings and the law of equal division ; present condition of peas- 
antry and agriculture ; growth of population ; statistics of produc- 
tion, wages, prices ; peasant pi'oprietorship. In Germany : reforms 
of Stein and Hardenberg ; condition of agriculture ; peasant pro- 
prietors ; statistics of wages and prices." 

A subject taken up (for exami)le, English land tenures) is 
divided into topics, some of which are treated by the instruc- 
tor by means of lectures, others are assigned to the indi- 
vidual members of the class, who are expected to present the 
results of their study in writing. These short theses are 
criticised and discussed by the instructor and the class, 
authorities that have been overlooked are pointed out, and 
suggestions are made as to the way in which the question 
can be better handled. Perhaps five or six of these papers 



AT HARVARD UNIVERSITY. 191 

are required from each student daring the 3'ear, the intention 
being that at least one sliall be handed in each week. As 
the natural tendency of such work is to " compile," much 
more consideration is given to the quality than to the quan- 
tit}' of the thesis^ 

In Political Economy G (Histoiy of Tariff Legislation in 
the United States, one hour a week, counting as a half- 
course, Dr. Taussig) the history of tariff legislation from 
1789 to the present day is studied. The method of instruc- 
tion is by lectures and collateral reading, specific references 
being given beforehand on the subjects to be taken up ; for 
example, the references on the tariff act of 1789 are as fol- 
lows : Hamilton's "Life of Hamilton," iv, 2-7; Adams, 
" Taxation in United States," 1-30, especially 27-30 ; Sum- 
ner, " History of Protection," 21-25 ; Young's " Report on 
Tariff Legislation," pp. iv-xvi. Similar references are 
given when the economic effects of the tariff, more particu- 
larly in recent years, are discussed. The class-room work is 
based on the assumption that the passages referred to have 
been read b}^ the students, and, though mainly carried on by 
lectures, includes questioning and discussion on the refer- 
ences. The economic principles bearing on tariff legislation 
are taken up in connection with the more important i)ublic 
utterances on the subject, such as Hamilton's "Report on 
Manufactures," Gallatin's " Memorial of 1832," Walker's 
" Treasury Report of 1845," and the speeches of "Webster, 
Clay, and others. These are read by the students, and dis- 
cussed in the class ; and at the same time with them are 
considered the views of writers on the theory of economic 
science. In the course of the year the various arguments 
pro and con in the protection controversy are, in one shape 
or another, encountered and discussed. Towards the close 
of the year lectures are given on the tariff" histoiy of Eng- 
land, France, and Germany. 



192 COURSE OF STUDY IN POLITICAL ECONOMY. 

Political Economy 7 (Comparison of the Financial Sys- 
tems of France, P^ngland, Germany, and the United States, 
one honr a week, counting as a half-course. Professor Dun- 
bar) deals with the principles of finance, and with the 
financial systems of the more important cirilized countries. 
The budgets of France, Germany, and England are exam- 
ined and compared, the financial methods of the United 
States are noted, and the principles of finance and the 
advantages and disadvantages of different taxes are dis- 
cussed. The instruction is mainly by lectures. The course 
is not given in the present year (1884-85), and may be 
omitted in future years, though it will be retained on the 
elective list. 

In Political Economy 8 (History of Financial Legislation 
in tlie United States, one hour a week, counting as a half- 
course. Professor Dunbar) the funding of the Revolutionary 
debt, the establishment and working of the first Bank of the 
United States, the financial policy of Hamilton and Gallatin, 
the effect of the War of 1812 on the finances and the cur- 
rency, the establishment of the second Bank of the United 
States, tlie fall of the bank in Jackson's time, and the ^^ears 
1836-40, the independent treasury, the State banking sys- 
tem, the growth of the public debt during the Civil "War, and 
its reduction and conversion since, the establishment and 
working of the National Bank system, — are the topics succes- 
sively considered. The method of instruction is by lectures 
and by reference to the public documents and other writings 
bearing on the subject. It is advised by the instructors that 
Courses 6 and 8 in Political Economy be taken together ; and 
this advice has been followed, most students who take one 
of these courses being also members of the other. 



The Teaching of History. 



By Pkofessok J. R. Seeley. 



T MUST ask you to be content with a few large afflrma- 
-L tious, which may be sufficient to provoke discussion, but 
whicli, in the paper itself, can be but very inadequately sup- 
ported. Perhaps you will agree with me that historj', as an 
educational subject, is not yet past the stage at which large 
affirmations are necessary, that conscientious and exact 
research ought to prevail in historj', as in other serious de- 
partments of study, that we can no longer be content with the 
showy, semi-fictitious narratives that satisfied a former gen- 
eration, is a proposition upon which a great reform in the 
teaching of history has been based. We all know what has 
been done in this direction among ourselves ; in Germany the 
reform was made long ago ; in Paris it has, in recent years, 
proceeded rapidly, thanks to the exertions of the Minister 
Duruy and such professors as Monod, Sorel, and Lavisse. On 
the principle itself I shall have nothing to say, because I do 
not suppose that among serious men there is any difference of 
opinion about it. If we set out in pursuit of truth, evidently 
we cannot be content with anything short of truth ; and we 
all of us by this time have enough familiarity with the rigor 
of scientific methods to be convinced that the discovery of 
truth is no child's play, no mere amusement. But, though 
the principle seems indisputable, I find that the application 
of it in education arouses much opposition, more opposition 



104 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY. 

than I for a long time uuderstood. It is allowed that such 
vigor of research is indispensable in the best kind of historical 
study, that those who intend to devote their lives to history 
sliould study it in this spirit. But the principle is of wider 
application. It affects also the historical studies of those 
who give less exclusive attention to liistory ; in short, of the 
mass of students ; and, further still, it affects popular views 
of history and our notions of the manner in which history 
should be written. These more indirect results of the prin- 
ciple of thoroughness arouse, I find, much opposition, and, 
when such opposition seems likely to be vain, a very sincere 
feeling of dismay. For this principle makes havoc of more 
cherished opinions than we might at first have expected, and, 
as it proceeds, seems to take all the poetry and all the charm 
out of history in such a way that we find ourselves at last asking 
for what purpose history so studied can serve. The admiration 
of great men, the elevating contemplation of noble examples, 
is the reward most of us expect to receive for the trouble we 
bestow upon history ; but the principle of thoroughness soon 
sets us doubting whether any great men will come safe out 
of the critical crucible ; whether the historical record is cota- 
plete enough to have preserved any trustworthy memory of 
great men ; nay, whether public affairs are not for the most 
part under the empire of routine, and seldom much affected 
by the especial qualities of an individual. Scepticism invades 
this department of knowledge too, and we begin after a time 
to perceive that another class of opinions. Adz., our opinions 
on politics, were far moi'c involved than we at first imagined 
with those opinions on historical events and historical char- 
acters about the soundness of which we have begun to feel 
a misgiving. Hitherto, those who have sought to elevate 
the minds of students and give them a noble enthusiasm by 
means of books, have looked mainly to historical books. It 



THE TEACHING OF HISTOKY. 195 

is a result of the reform iu historical method, which has made 
it so much more rigorous, that historical books henceforth 
will be less available for this purpose. But, if so, it will 
begin to be asked what is the use of them to the majority of 
students. I do not myself think that such extreme scepti- 
cism with respect to history, as that which Mr. Herbert 
Spencer professes, is likely to prevail. I am not afraid but 
that history will continue to be thought important, and I be- 
lieve that iu the form of serious research it will flourish more 
and more tor a long time to come. But in this form will it 
not be a stud}' onl}' adapted for the few? Ought we not, 
therefore, to l^y it down as a fundamental rule of the teach- 
ing of historj- that the subject is to be struck off the general 
educational list of subjects ? 

I have remarked with anxiet}' of late years that some 
distinguished teachers appear inclined to hold this opinion. 
History was the favorite subject of Arnold and Temple, but 
some at least of those who now hold the same sort of dis- 
tinguished position in the educational world, profess that 
they do not know how to teach history> and that- there, is no , 
subject which baffles them so much. The solution of this 
difficulty I seem to m3'self to see very distinctly, and, if I 
seem to any to state it here indistincth', I must ask them to 
impute it to the hurry in which I write, and at the same time 
I'efer them to several essays printed at different times in 
" Macmillan's Magazine," in which I have stated it more 
fully. 

That historical investigations ought to be thorough is of 
course true, but by itself the proposition can hardly be called 
a truth ; it is at ])est a half-truth. If we borrow from science 
its rigorous method, let us borrow at the same time what 
science has else to offer. History which is scientific in its 
exactness, but in nothing else, is a middle thing between 



196 THE TEACHING OF HISTOKY. 

science and literature, and will attain the ends of neither ; it 
will be only dull literature and abortive science. 

Science, when it has with such exemplary care collected 
and verified its facts, proceeds to generalize upon them, and 
thus to establish principles. It is only for the sake of such 
principles that science considers facts worthy of collection 
and exact verification. But history, when it has made its 
investigations, contents itself with arranging and recording 
the results in stately narrative composed with literary art. 
The historian usually asserts that the results thus recorded 
are of great value ; he seems to assume that general princi- 
ples might be deduced from them, but he professes at the 
same time that his business is only with the facts, and that 
his work is done when a narrative has been composed exactly 
true, and at the same time well written. The reform of which 
I have spoken has scarcely touched this curious division of 
labor. It leaves the historian in the condition of a mere 
investigator and narrator of fiicts, asserting only that of 
these two functions the former is far more important and 
more difficult than the latter. 

To whom, then, does it fall to deduce conclusions from the 
materials furnished by the historian? To a wholl}' different 
class of persons, who at present have scarcely a name or 
recognized position among us, — those philosophers who are 
attempting to build up a system of sociology. But their 
speculations, being kept wholly separate from history, do 
not enter into the teaching of history. In education, there- 
fore, this subject is left as a mass of building materials, out 
of which no edifice is ever constructed. So long as the mere 
literary view of the subject prevailed, this did not seem 
absurd ; political truth was supposed to have been discovered 
independently by some a priori method, and historical exam- 
ples were adduced chiefly by way of illustration ; but the ab- 



THE TEACHING OF HISTO:^. 197 

surdity springs to light as soon as history begins to be classed 
under science rather than under literature, so soon as politi- 
cal truth is understood to be discovered through history, and 
not merely to be illustrated by it, 

I should like to argue at length that it is in itself an 
unsound method to assign the investigation of facts to one 
set of workers, and the reasoning upon the facts so discov- 
ered to another class. I should like to show that if the 
historian is not himself a sociologist, he will not know what 
facts are worth investigating, and still less in what degree 
facts are worth investigating. I should like to call attention 
to the vast waste of labor on the one side, and the vast defi- 
cienc}' of labor on the other side, Avhich actually arise from 
the fact that historians under the present system are scarcely 
sociologists, and therefore do not altogether know for what 
purpose they investigate. But I must be content to point 
out the bad effects which the system has in education. 

Under this system facts are grouped, not according to 
resemblance in kind, but simply in a chronological series. 
What may be called a biography of some famous state is 
written. Such a state IMography may be made very impres- 
sive by a writer of imagination, especially if he does not 
hamper himself with too minute research. But what can the 
student do with it? He can scarcely treat it as a poem, and 
learn it by heart. Under the reformed system he analyzes 
it, criticises it, traces it back to its source ; a process under 
which most of its poetical impressiveness is likely to disap- 
pear. In return, he gets exact knowledge of important 
occurrences, but he does not get this in the form in which he 
can use it for the purpose of establishing general conclu- 
sions, for the facts of which he thus gets exact knowledge 
are heterogeneous. They do not belong together l)y their 
nature, but only happen to be connected chronologically. 



198 THJE TEACHING OF HISTORY. 



'W 



A single example will put before you the very obvious, yet, 
as I thiuk, all-important fact to which I draw your attention. 
Let us think of the agrarian legislation of Tiberius Gracchus, 
which occupies the first striking chapter in the history of the 
fall of Rome. What subject can be more instructive to a 
student, both from its own importance and from the admira- 
ble manner in which it has been treated by modern scholar- 
ship? True, but educationally it is out of its place when it 
comes before the student as a mere occurrence of the second 
century before Christ. For thus presented it stands among 
facts with which it has no resemblance, and which throw no 
light upon it, — military facts concerning the conquest of 
Carthage, Spain, and Greece by the Romans, facts of culture 
history concerning the influence of Greek literature and Greek 
philosophy u[)on the conquerors of Greece. To study it prop- 
erly, we must take it out of its chronological connection and 
put it among facts of its own kind. It is a land question ; 
it has nothing-to do with war or with literature. It must he 
studied first in connection with the land system of Rome in 
earlier and later times ; secondly, l)y comparison with the 
land systems and land revolutions of other states, both 
ancient and modern. 

In short, science l)rings together phenomena of the same 
kind, l)ut history brings together phenomena of different 
kinds, which have chanced to appear at the same time. We 
have given to history the conscientiousness of science, but 
we have not yet given it the arrangement of science. We 
still arrange historic phenomena under periods, centuries, 
reigns, dynasties, but what is wanted is a real rather than a 
temporal classification. The phenomena should be classed 
under such headings as Constitutional, International, Eco- 
nomical, Industrial, etc. Nor should each state be studied 
by itself, but all states together, the comparative method 



THE TEACHING OF HISTORY. 199 

being constantly employed, and much attention being given 
to the classification of states. 

It will be seen that this principle would be almost revolu- 
tionary, if it were at once and without reserve applied to the 
teaching of history. I am sensible that it needs to be ex- 
plained at great length, and I am quite aware how many 
objections might be urged against it. But I have not time 
either for fuller exposition or for dealing with objections, 
and therefore in the remainder of this paper I shall deal 
with an intermediate system which might, without too great 
difficulty, be adopted at once. 

The essential point is this, that we should recognize that 
to study history is to study not merely a narrative, but at the 
same time certain theoretical subjects. Thus, industrial facts 
cannot be understood without political economy, nor military 
facts witliout military science, nor legal facts without legal 
science, nor constitutional and legislative developments with- 
out political science. I have gone further, and laid it down 
that these theoretical subjects are the real object fOr which 
historical facts are collected and authenticated. But for the 
present it is enough that they should be recognized as insep- 
arably connected with historical study. It has alwa3's been 
tacitly assumed that the historian is also an economist, an 
authority on constitutional law, on legislation, on finance, 
on strateg}'. Let us, then, go a single step further, and 
recognize that, as the historian is all this, the student of his- 
tory must prepare himself to be all this — in other words, 
must master all these subjects. These are the great subjects 
of public life ; these are the studies which make the citizen 
and train the statesman. All the poetic charm which histor}' 
is losing would be amply compensated if it should acquire in 
exchange the practical interest that is associated with these 
studies. 



200 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY. 

First, then, let the most important of these subjects be 
taught theoretically along with history, and for the benefit of 
historical students. Some of them, of course, are much more 
important than others. I place in the foreground what we 
may call political philosophy {Allgemeine Staatslelire) . After 
this may come that comparative study of legal institutions 
of which we have such excellent specimens in the works of 
Sir H. Maine. Next will come political economy, which in 
the hands of an able teacher will probably assume a some- 
what new shape when it is treated from the historical point 
of view. International law should be added, in order to 
accustom the student to contemplate the mutual relations of 
states. 

It ma}' be said that enough would be done if the teacher 
or lecturer, in treating a historical period, entered fully into 
the economical, or juridical, or political principles suggested 
by the narrative. This is precisely what I wish to deny. It 
seems to me that in history, as hitherto written and taught, 
a quantity of theory has been, as it were, held in solution ; 
I wish to see it precipitated. Whereas the investigation of 
historical facts has lately been made honest and careful, the 
reasoning about historical facts is still, it seems to me, oracu- 
lar and unsatisfactor}' ; I wish to make this, too, honest, 
methodical, explicit. For this end it seems to me necessary 
that what really is theory should be called theory and studied 
as such. 

If it be asked by what practical measures such a change 
could be introduced ; if it be urged, for instance, by a school- 
master, that there is no room in the school-day for lessons 
on three or four new subjects, and that masters to teach 
them are not to be found in sufficient number, I should 
reply, that I have been discussing the teaching of history in 
general, not the teaching of history in schools. What I my- 



THE TEACHING OF HISTORY. 201 

self know practically is the teaching of history in universi- 
ties, and I suppose it may he laid down as a general principle 
that reforms in education must begin at the university. The 
school is fettered to the university, since to the university 
the boys go, and from the university the masters come. 
Now, in the universities it is not very difficult to arrange 
the teaching of history on this principle. Since in a univer- 
sitj" the theoretical subjects I have mentioned are alread}' 
taught, all that is required is to bring them into more direct, 
more formal connection with history, and to abolish that 
vicious division of labor under which the historian imagines 
that he lias nothing to do with sociology, and the sociologist 
that he can dispense with history. 

When this has once been done, each university will create 
a school of historians who will be as strong on the theoretical 
side as on the side of mere research. Thej' will be sociolo- 
gists, economists, jurists, as well as chroniclers and antiqua- 
rians, and, as at both our universities the historical school is 
ah'eady large, a good many of such historians will be formed. 
These will carry the method from the universities to the 
schools. They will be the masters of the future historical 
classes at Harrow and Rugby. From them will proceed the 
text-books which will, as it were, fix the method and bring it 
within the reach of less able teachers. They, too, will decide 
whether history taught in this way is to be considered as an 
advanced subject, fit only for the highest classes in schools, 
or whether it may be possible to introduce even younger boys 
to it. 

Lastly, they will help to clear up the confusion as to the 
nature and objects of history which now exists in the public 
mind. They will separate it from biography and from mere 
curious information about past times. They will separate it 
from romance, and they will explain in what sense and in 



202 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY. 

what degree it may properly be made interesting, and in 
what sense also it cannot be interesting without ceasing to 
be true. They will assert the seriousness of histor}-, and 
make it the lesson-book of politics ; no longer a record 
which partisans may garble at their pleasure, but a record 
of truth, not to be altered and not to be evaded, written to 
correct our prejudices and rebuke our party rancor. — Lon- 
don Journal of Education. 



On Methods of Teaching History. 



By Professor C. K. Adams, Michigan University. 



THE teaching of history, in common with instruction in 
.ill other sj'stems of organized knowledge, should be 
carried on with three more or less distinct objects in view : 
the nature of the facts involved, the relations of those facts, 
and the proper methods of investigation. Though it is not 
possible in practice to separate these three objects completely 
one from another, 3-et each should receive its due proportion 
of attention, and should receive that attention in its appro- 
priate place. First of all, therefore, the teacher of history 
is called upon to decide which of these three objects he ought 
with any given class to keep most prominently in view. The 
answer of this question involves nothing less than a deter- 
mination of the proper succession of historical studies. 

This order of succession would seem to be fixed by nature. 
It is certain that we must know something of the existence, 
if not, indeed, of the nature, of any given order of events 
before we can apprehend very clearly the relations of those 
events to one another. Indeed, it may be said that the begin- 
ning of all organized knowledge is the acquisition of a certain 
number of facts and truths. These facts, moreover, must 
not be limited in range to a single portion of the subject we 
are to study. They must be comprehensive in their scope. 
We must know something of the heavens as a whole before 
we can well understand the double stars or even the moon. 
We cannot appreciate the significance of a missing link until 
we have learned something of the chain of which that link is 



204 ON METHODS OF 

supposed to form a part. We shall be unable to explain the 
jubilant prosperity of a great and growing city unless we 
have acquired considerable knowledge of the region of which 
that city is the political and commercial centre. Thus we see 
that there is a certain necessary order of succession, an order 
which seems to be founded in the law, so well formulated by 
Herbert Spencer, "there can be no correct idea of a part 
without a correct idea of the correlative whole." 

It is of course true that we learn something of individual 
facts before we can advance to a comprehension of a series. 
In a certain sense, therefore, we must proceed from the indi- 
vidual to the general. But it is also true that before our 
knowledge of the individual can be complete, we must have 
acquired some knowledge of the series of which the individ- 
ual forms a part. The proper order of study, therefore, 
would seem to be definitely fixed at our hand. We should 
begin with such individual facts as form the strategic points 
of historical progress, and should dwell upon them only so 
far as to fix their general character and importance in the 
attention of the pupil. We should then proceed to a study 
of the relations of those facts in the development of society. 
This done, we are read}' to advance to the third stage of 
our study, — a more careful investigation of the individual 
elements of social and [)olitical life, with a view to revealing 
the sources of their influence and power. 

Having determined so much in regard to the proper order 
of studies, we are read}' to address ourselves to the question 
of methods. But at the vvvy outset we are confronted with 
a somewhat formidable difficulty. In the present condition 
of schools in the United States, there is actuall}', and per- 
haps necessarily, a l)road distinction between what is desir- 
able and what is practicable. It is probably not too much 
to say that the introduction of methods of ideal excellence 



TEACHING HISTORY. 2U5 

in the teaching of history would involve a revolution in our 
schools which the public at present is scarcely ready even to 
consider. But however much we may be obliged to fall short 
of what we could desire, we shall always find it profitable to 
keep our eyes fixed upon the highest ideals. First of all, 
then, let us provide a standard of measurement by inquiring 
what is desirable. 

In a school where all branches of instruction are properly 
distributed and organized, the pupil may profitably receive 
his first lessons in history when he is nine or ten years of 
age. But a careful distinction must be made between re- 
ceiving the first instruction in history and beginning the 
studj* of it. At this age the pupil acquires information, not 
thi'ough his own unaided effort, but almost exclusively through 
the effort of the teacher. A mother has no difficulty in teach- 
ing her child the story of Joseph or Samuel, and a teacher 
properly qualified for his vocation ought to have no more 
difficulty in teaching the story of Pjrrhus or Martin Luther. 
Indeed, it may be said that there are onl}' two requisites of 
success. The teacher must know the stoiy, and he must 
understand the art of telling it in such a way as to make an 
imi)ressiou by it. That such methods, under favorable cir- 
cumstances, ar» entirely practicable has been clearly demon- 
strated in. the German gymnasia. In these schools, where 
history has been taught with greater success than anywhere 
else in the world, a teacher who has been especialh^ trained 
for his work takes the lowest grade of pupils over the whole 
range of general history in this way. The course is almost 
exclusively biographical. Indeed, it is little more than a 
succession of stories told with the especial aim of making a 
deep impression upon the mind of the child concerning some 
of the most important of the great characters of history. 
Such a course, continuing for two years at the rate of two 



206 ON METHODS OF 

lessons u week, will be found to have given the pupil consid- 
erable knowledge of a vast number of valuable facts. And, 
best of all, the method by which this information has been 
acquired, so far from taxing the strength or wearying the 
attention of the scholar, has been to him a positive source of 
recreation and pleasure. 

At the age of about twelve the pupil is ready for a more 
substantial diet. The teacher now takes him once more over 
the same ground, but with a somewhat different object in 
view. The scholar can now put facts together, and can 
understand something of the relations of cause 'and effect. 
In the former course he listened to the story of Hannibal : 
now he is read}' for the story of the Second Punic War. A 
little pamphlet, usually prepared by the teacher and made up 
almost exclusively of names and dates, is put into the liand 
of the pupil merely to assist him in recalling what the teacher 
has said. Here, as in the former course, the knowledge 
acquired comes chief!}' from the teacher. The system keeps 
clearly in view tlie fact that the pupil is not yet ready for that 
development which results from hard study. It never ceases 
to remember that at least three-fourths of all the time spent 
by a boy of twelve in trying to learn a hard lesson out of 
a book is time thrown away. Perhaps one-fourth of the 
time is devoted to more or less desperate and conscientious 
effort ; l)ut the large remaining portion is dawdled away in 
thinking of the last game of ball and longing for the next 
game of tag. A true system must make a constant endeavor 
to turn these demoralizing moments to profitable account. 
In this effort the German system is the most successful for 
the reason that instead of leaving the pupil to the meagre 
resources of his own thoughts, it occupies his attention with 
direct instruction in the form of attractive and profitable nar- 
ration. The result is that, through a judicious exercise of this 



TEACHING HISTORY. 207 

kind of econoni}', the German pupil at the age of fifteen or 
sixteen has been able to complete two distinct surveys of uni- 
versal histor}'. In the two or three jears following, he is 
able to supplement the knowledge already obtained in a 
variety of ways. He may be directed in a careful study of 
the history of his own countrj', an outline of which he has 
already obtained ; or may make an elaborate examination of 
some important period like that of the Reformation or the 
French Revolution. 

Such, stated in general terms, is the preparation in history 
which the German student receives before going to the uni- 
versity. It is founded in a philosophical appreciation of the 
needs and the capabilities of the pupil, and is undoubtedly 
the best that has ever been devised. It is equally adapted 
to the wants of those two classes of pupils into which every 
secondar}- school is divided. It is the best preparation for 
those whose scholastic studies are to terminate with the pre- 
paratory school ; and the best for those who are to carry for- 
ward their studies in a university course. 

The student who has received this preparation goes to the 
university at about the age of nineteen. He is now ready for 
the more careful and philosophical study of individual nations 
and of individual periods. In his future studies he will 
devote himself chief!}' to the relations and significance of facts 
rather than to the mei"e existence of facts themselves. Two 
ways are open to him : he can attend courses of lectures, 
and he can become a member of an historical seminar}'. 
But, wherever he goes, he will usually find that the object 
is to make a very careful study of some limited period, or of 
some limited phase of historical development. In the lec- 
ture-room he will find that the work done by the professor 
has for its highest object the opening of avenues of research 
and the guiding of the student in certain methods of thouo;ht 



208 ON METHODS OP 

and investigation. In the seminary, the student will be di- 
rected here and there by the professor, with a view to avoid- 
ing gross errors, but the investigator will be left to work out 
his results mainly in his own wa}'. Before he has advanced 
very far in carrying on his investigations, he will almost in- 
evitably arrive at the conclusion that the historical seminary 
is to the study of history, what the laboratory is to the study 
of the natural sciences. 

But as soon as we attempt to compare this ideal with the 
methods that now generall}' prevail in the United States, we 
find more points of difference than points of similarity. In 
the preparatory schools of Germany, every teacher of history 
is required to have received especial training b}^ thorough 
courses of historical study, such as those given in the gym- 
nasium and in the university. In the best of the preparatory- 
schools in America, on the other hand, history is often taught 
bj- persons that have received no especial training for the 
work whatever. Not onl}' have the teachers, as a rule, re- 
ceived inadequate outfit, but they are generall}^ so burdened 
with other work, and so wearied bj' it, that they are quite 
incapable of repairing an}' defects that under more favorable 
circumstances might be removed. In Germany, moreover, 
histor}' is made a constituent part of the regular intellectual 
nourishment of the pupil during the whole of the time of his 
preparatory work. In America, on the contrary, it is gener- 
ally crowded into one or two terms, or, at most, into a single 
year. There is a strong analogy between the proper methods 
of feeding the body and the proper methods of feeding the 
mind. The arrangement of the studies in many of our 
schools suggests the propriety of eating roast beef and plum 
pudding five days in a week for six months, and then ab- 
staiuing from it altogether for five or six years. The eff'ect 
of such a system upon the appetite and the digestion would 



TEACHING HISTOKY. 209 

doubtless be very much like the effects of a similar policy in 
matters of educatiou. Moreover, the teacher in America is 
ofteu expected to teach not less than twenty-five or thu'ty 
hours a week, while, of the teachers in Germany, scarcely 
more than half of that number is I'equired. But, if we de- 
mand twice as man}- hours of the teacher, we strike the bal- 
ance b}' requiring only half as many hours of the pupil. In 
America, the number of lessons per week for each pupil is 
about fifteen ; while in Germany the number regularl}' re- 
quired is from thirty to thirty-five. Thus, in the fashion of 
Charles Lamb, we preserve the equation b}' multiplying the 
lessons of the teacher and dividing the lessons of the scholar 
b}' two. 

These comparisons are enough to show that nothing less 
than a I'evolution will make our teaching of history equal to 
that which we find in Germany. Such a revolution we may 
not look for at present. But we can at least inquu'e what 
improvements are practicable without interference with the 
general organization of our schools. 

In the first place, some amelioration is possible in the use 
of the ordinarjf text-book. In many schools the so-called 
teaching of history is literall}' a mere hearing of recitations. 
I have heard of a person, by courtesy called a teacher, who 
habitually kept his finger upon the line in the text-book before 
him, and limited his instruction to the work of correcting the 
trifling variations of the pupil from the phraseology of the 
text. Here, the function of the teacher was merely that of a 
watchman ; though this method prevailed in a school that 
called itself a university. I have no hesitation in expressing 
the opinion that the total result of such an exercise on the 
mind of the pupil is more injurious than beneficial. The 
mere memorizing of dry facts and assertions affords no intel- 
lectual nourishment, while it is almost sure to create a dis- 



210 ON JSIETHODS OF 

taste for historical study, and, perhaps, will even alienate 
the taste of the scholar forever. The first of all endeavors, 
therefore, should be to put life and action into what, as it 
stands, is a mere bundle of dry bones. 

This can be done in two wa^s. The information of the 
teacher may be used to illustrate what is set before the class 
as a lessou. Questions hinted at in the lesson ma}" also be 
assigned the class for personal investigation. The first 
method will always be used to some extent by every efficient 
teacher ; but it will not ordinarily be found sufficient. A far 
more helpful reliance is the method of personal research. 
The nature of the questions assigned must, of course, depend 
on the intelligence and advancement of the class. But even 
with a class of beginners, more is likely to be accomplished 
by assigning certain topics than b}" assigning certain lessons. 
Questions selected with due reference to the resources of the 
school library are likely to prove a far more profitable means 
of real advancement than an}' slavish dependence on even the 
best of text-books. The most successful instruction I have 
Qvev known in any preparatory school was carried on without 
any text-book whatever. 

But if these methods are the most efficient in the prepara- 
tory schools, they are even more emphatically to be recom- 
mended in our colleges and universities. Perhaps in neither 
grade of instruction would it ordinarily be quite safe to aban- 
don the text-book altogether. But the text-book should be 
looked upon as an assistance, rather than as a means of sup- 
port. The student ought not to be encouraged to rely on 
an}^ one book as an unquestionable authority. The habit of 
consulting different authors on every question of importance 
should be earl}' acquired and should be constantly stimulated. 
For the accomplishment of these ends it will ordinarily be 
found, I think, that the most successful instruction is made 



TEACHING HISTORY. 211 

up of a judicious combination of the text-book, the lecture, 
and the method of personal research. 

When the college student is ready to begin his studies in 
history, he is not yet prepared for the most advanced work. 
He is deficient in two very important qualifications. In the 
fli-st place, he is not in possession of a sufficient number of 
important historical facts ; and, in the second, he is not ^et 
sufflcientl}' familiar with what may be called the methods and 
laws of historical development. To supply these deficiences 
should be the object of the earlier historical studies during 
the undergraduate course. 

At the outset the student may be presumed to have some 
knowledge of general history, and of the history of his own 
country. This may be a somewhat violent presumption : 
but it is probably not wise to occupy the time of the under- 
graduate with such elementary studies as are taught in all the 
best of our high schools and academies. Better results are 
likely to follow from devoting our energies to an examina- 
tion of such selected periods and nationalities as hold out the 
most credible assurances of profit. 

But what periods shall be selected, and how shall the 
instruction be given? 

Studies in the history of our own country and in the his- 
tory- of England should doubtless occupy the foremost place ; 
but they should not crowd out studies of a more general na- 
ture. I cannot better point out what I think these studies 
should be than by indicating what is done at the present time 
in the University of Michigan. Some years ago a course was 
provided for, by means of which two lessons a week for one 
3'ear are devoted to a study of the Political and Social Histor}- 
of England before the close of the Napoleonic "Wars. Another 
course of two lessons a week, for "half a year, is devoted to a 
study of the Reforms in the English Government during the 



212 ON METHODS OF 

present century. This is supplemented by a course of two 
lectures a week, for half a year, on The Theories and Meth- 
ods of the English Government. In American History, a 
course on The Political and Social Development of the Colo- 
nies is followed by two courses on The Constitutional History 
of the United States since the close of the Revolutionary 
War. These courses in American History occup}^ the stu- 
dent once a week during half a year, and twice a week dur- 
ing a whole year. Of a more general nature, and for the 
purpose of giving broader views of the laws of historic devel- 
opment, one course is given on The History of Political and 
Social Institutions, one on The General History of Europe 
from the Reformation to the French Revolution, one on The 
History of Civilization in the Middle Ages, and one on 
The Rise and Development of Prussia. Not all of these 
courses are absolutely' prerequisite for admission to the more 
advanced work of the historical and political seminaries, 
but they may all be regarded as preliminary to it. Crown- 
ing the work of the whole are three seminaries, one being 
devoted to a study of the Political Institutions of England, 
one to those of America, and one to Comparative Methods 
of Local Administration. 

What has already been said will afford sufficient answer, 
perhaps, to the question of method. But a single illustra- 
tion will probably give a more definite idea. The lecture of 
to-day, in the course on the History of Institutions, happens 
to be devoted to a study of Roman Provincial Administra- 
tion. The following topics were assigned to the several 
groups of the class for the lessons of next week: "What 
light is thrown on Roman Provincial methods b}' Plutarch's 
Life of Lucullus?" "What by Cicero's oration against 
Verres?" "What by Guizot's essa}- on the Regime Munici- 
jxU?" "What by Arnold's chapter on 'The System of 



TEACHING HISTOHY. 213 

Taxation ? ' " In this manner a class may easil}' be led 
through then' own researches to see how completely the sys- 
tematic practice of injustice finally dissolved all the bonds 
that bound the Roman provinces to the general government. 
This accomplished, the downfall of the Empire is no longer a 
question that will give any difficulty to the student. 

The work of the historical seminary is of a higher order. 
Each class consists of not more than about ten members, and 
each meeting is not less than about two hours in length. 
Each of the questions given out for investigation is such as to 
occupy the attention of the student during at least half a year; 
and all of the questions are designed to be of such cognate 
significance as to be of interest to all the members of the class. 
At the weekly meetings each member gives an account of his 
own investigations, and listens to such inquiries and sugges- 
tions as ma}' be made by the teacher and the other members 
of the class. The titles of two or three papers prepared dur- 
ing the present semester will be enough to indicate the nature 
of the work done. Among others, essays founded on origi- 
nal research have being written on "A Histor}' of the 
Appointing Power of the President " ; "A History of the 
Land Grants for Education in the North-west" ; and "Crim- 
inal Legislation in New England during the Colonial Period." 

It need not be added that this is true university work of a 
high order. Of course such studies are impracticable, 
except in an institution where large liberties in the way of 
elective courses are given, and where preliminary historical 
studies are begun early in the student's collegiate career. 
But m}' own experience leads to the belief that if the student 
enters upon the proper antecedent studies in the second year 
of his course, he ma}' be brought in the fourth year to a grade 
of work which need not shrink from comparison with that 
carried on in the universities of the old world. 



The Methods of Historical 
Study and Eeseaech in Columbia College. 



By Professor John W. Burgess, Columbia University. 

IN order to a clear presentation of this subject, one which 
shall escape the possibilities of a misunderstanding, it 
will be necessary to describe briefly the general peculiarities 
of the educational system of that complex of institutions to 
which the name Columbia College is now attached. The 
most general principle of that system distinguishes the Col- 
lege into two parts ; viz. : the Gymnasium, the College accord- 
ing to the old signification of that name in the United States, 

— as Ave term it here, the School of Arts, and the graduate 
and professional courses, the University. This distinction, 
however, is, without further explanation, liable to a miscon- 
ception ; for the last year of the School of Arts, what is gen- 
erally known as the College senior year, is counted to the 
University in the non-professional courses of the University, 

— those courses which, in a German University, would be 
placed under the Faculty of Philosophy. It is at this point, 
viz., the beginning of the senior A'ear in the School of Arts, 
that the courses of study become purely and wholly elective, 
and the methods of instruction purely and distinctively those 
of the University. This year, with two graduate years, 
forms the University period for the students who pass from 
the School of Arts into the University, or who come from 
other Colleges at the end of their junior year. If, however, 
they be graduates of other Colleges, in which the courses 
of the senior year correspond to, or are an equivalent for, 



216 METHODS OF HISTORICAL STUDY 

the courses in the School of Arts, they are admitted to the 
second year of the University. 

If, now, the reader will keep this distinction and these 
explanations clearly in mind, a full comprehension of the 
methods of historic study and research at present followed 
in Columbia College will be easily and rapidly attained. 

In the Gymnasium, — the first three years of the School of 
Arts, — the method is, of course, the gymnastic method, 
and the purpose sought the gymnastic purpose : that is, the 
daily drill upon text-books and hand-books of history- by 
recitation, question and answer, as required studies, for the 
purpose of fixing and classifying in the mind of the student 
the elements of historical geograph}^, the chronology and 
outward frame of historic events, the biographies of his- 
toric characters, and the definitions of historical terms and 
expressions. This is, of course, the indispensably neces- 
sary preparation for every student who would come with a 
properly disciplined historical memor}', stored with a suffi- 
cient amount of elementary historical data, to the work of 
the University in this branch. If this be not properly ac- 
complished, the foundation for everything further is want- 
ing, and the instruction received in the University will be 
to a large degree unappreciated, to say the least. I would 
venture to assert that to all persons who have taken any 
part in the attempt to develop a Universit}" in tlie United 
States the want of a true gymnastic training in the elements 
of knowledge has appeared a most crying one. And if, 
while so many of our Colleges, both great and small, are 
aflfecting to despise their g3'mnastic calling, and seeking to 
become Universities through the fallacious process of simply 
making their gymnastic studies elective and optional, some 
Apostle of the Gymnasium would arise and found Academies 
which would stand true to the gymnastic method and pur- 



nsr COLUIMBIA COLLEGE. 217 

pose, such an one would do for the development of the true 
University a far greater work than the College which ceases 
to be the one thing without becoming the other. 

On the other hand, the methods pursued and the purposes 
aimed at in the University courses of history are more com- 
plex, as well as different, and therefore require a more mi- 
nute presentation. In the first place, attendance upon these 
courses is purel}- optional with the student. There would be 
a great loss both in the quantity and quality of the instruc- 
tion were the professor obliged to accommodate himself to 
the level of hearers whose tastes and talents were not in the 
line pursued ; and, on the other hand, it would be an unnat- 
ural limitation upon, if not a total destruction of, individual 
genius, were the student of the University not permitted to 
construct the combination of his studies for himself. The 
discipline and general elementary instruction of the Gymna- 
sium ought to have developed in his own consciousness a 
better knowledge of his own intellectual peculiarities than 
any other person or body of persons can have. If it has 
not, then it will not matter much, as a general rule, where 
he may fall. Consideration for him who has no genius at all 
must never lead us to abandon the method in the University 
for the cultivation of a true intellectual peculiarity ; for 
without such a development there can be no advance in the 
discovery of new truth or in a fuller comprehension of old 
ti'uth. It is this consideration which has led the authorities 
in Columbia College to permit the University students of 
history not only to select what courses they ma}' choose in 
histor}', but also to combine therewith such courses in phi- 
lolog}', literature, philosophy, natural science and law as they 
may desire. Our experience in the working of the method 
has hardly yet been long enough to pronounce with confi- 
dence upon results. So far as my own observation reaches. 



218 METHODS OF HISTORICAL STUDY 

however, I feel entirel}' satisfied that the comprehension of 
history' has been greatly broadened and deepened b}- the 
variety of combinations into which it has thus been brought, 
and I cannot but believe that the other elements of the com- 
binations have experienced a like advantage. 

In the second place. The method of instruction in the 
University branches of history is chiefly by original lecture. 
And this for two reasons : the one relating to the professor, 
the other to the student. The University professor must be 
a worker among original material. He must present to his 
student his oivn view derived from the most original sources 
attainable. He must construct history out of the chaos of 
original historic atoms. If he does not do this, but contents 
himself with simpl}' repeating the views of others, it is 
probably because he is not capable of it ; in which case he is 
no University professor at all, but at best only a drill master 
for the Gymnasium. While the University student must 
learn among liis first lessons that truth, as man knows it, is 
no ready-made article of certain and objective character, 
that it is a human interpretation, and subject therefore to 
the fallibility of human insight and reasoning, — one-sided, 
colored, incomplete. Unless this thought be continualh' im- 
pressed upon him by the method of the instruction which he 
receives, he will, to a greater or less degree, make dogma of 
his learning, and this is the negation of progress in the wider 
and more perfect comprehension of truth. Now instruction 
by means of the text-book in the University has always the 
tendency to the production of this result, — unless, per- 
chance, the professor uses the text more for the purpose of 
confuting than teaching, in which case he is really lecturing 
and not hearing recitations. What is contained in a book 
which has been studied by classes gone before has, in the 
mind of a student not yet accustomed to sharp criticism, too 



EST COLUMBIA COLLEGE. 219 

large a presumption in its favor. He is too ready to acqui- 
esce in its pi'opositions, and let memory act where the more 
difficult processes of criticism and judgment should be called 
into pla}'. On the other hand, when he has the person of 
his author always before his eyes, observes his weaknesses 
as well as his strength, then the true scholastic skepticism 
and belligerency' will be aroused, and criticism, judgment, 
reasoning, insight, be developed. 

Third. But this is only what might be termed the outward 
form of method generally. As to the internal principles or 
purposes of our method of historical instruction in particular, 
we seek to teach the student, first, how to get hold of a his- 
toric fact, how to distinguish fact from fiction, how to divest 
it as far as possible of coloring or exaggeration. We send 
him, therefore, to the most original sources attainable for his 
jn-imary information. If there be more than one original 
source upon the same fact, we teach him to set these in com- 
parison or contrast, to observe their agreements and discrep- 
ancies, and to attain a point of view from which all, or if this 
is not possible, the most of the evidence may appear recon- 
cilable. And we warn him not to accept a statement not 
well authenticated for a fact, upon the principle that it is far 
lietter for the historical investigator to think that he does not 
know what he may know than to think he knows what he may 
not know. We undertake, in the second place, to teach the 
student to set the facts which he has thus attained in their 
chronological order, to the further end of setting them in 
their order as cause and effect. And we seek to make hun 
clearly comprehend and continually feel that the latter i)ro- 
cess is the one most delicate and critical which the historical 
student is called upon to undertake, in that he is continually 
tempted to account that which is mere antecedent and conse- 
quent as being cause and effect. It is just in this process. 



220 METHODS OF HISTORICAL STUDY 

of course, that the true historical genius most clearly reveals 
itself. It is just in this process that genius is most neces- 
sary to accomplish anything valuable. It is therefore most 
difficult to formulate rules upon the point for the direction of 
the historical student who may have no genius for his work. 
What we most insist upon, however, is a critical comparison 
of the sequence of facts in the history of different states or 
peoples at a like period in the development of their civiliza- 
tions. If this be done with patience, care, and judgment, 
the student who possesses a moderate degree of true logic 
will soon learn to distinguish, to some extent at least, ante- 
cedent and consequent merel}' from cause and effect. 

Fourth. After the facts have been determined and the 
causal nexus established we endeavor to teach the student to 
look for the institutions and ideas which have been developed 
through the sequence of events in the civilization of an age 
or people. This I might term the ultimate object of our 
entire method of historical instruction. With us history is the 
chief preparation for the study of the legal and political sci- 
ences. Through it we seek to find the origin, follow the 
growth and learn the meaning of our legal, political, and 
economic principles and institutions. We class it therefore 
no longer with fiction or rhetoric or belles-lettres, but with 
logic, philosophy, ethics. We value it, therefore, not by its 
brilliancy, but by its productiveness. 

Lastly. We would not consider the circle of our method as 
complete, did it make no provision for the public practice of 
the students. To this end we have established an Academy 
of the historic, jural, and political sciences, composed of the 
graduates of the University in these branches. Before this 
body, in its regular weekly meetings, each member has the 
opportunity and assumes the duty of presenting one original 
work each year. The work is then the property of the Acad- 



IN COLUMBIA COLLEGE. 221 

emy to publish or preserve in its archives as it will. The 
best production of the j'ear in the Acadeni}', as adjudged by 
the University Faculty in these departments, is rewarded by 
a prize lectureship in the University. In this manner we seek 
to make our students not simpl}' pupils but co-workers, 
not simply recipients but givers with interest upon what the}^ 
have received and to open the way for genius, talent, and 
industry in these branches to positions from whicli they may 
be employed in the further development and expansion of 
these departments. 

As I indicated above, we have hardly yet had sufficient 
experience with our method and system to pronounce defi- 
nitely and finally upon results. They have not yet made 
their cjcle. But we are satisfied with the progress, and 
encouraged by the prospects. 

Columbia College, 
AprU 27, 1883. 



Physical Geography and History. 



A KNOWLEDGE of the strncture of the earth on which 
we dwell should iiuderlie and precede all our studies 
of history and political science. We have been accustomed 
to study mind psychologically, without studying the body in 
which the mind dwells. So we have considered the historical 
movements of man without considering the theatre on which 
he moves. Edition after edition of the historical atlases of 
the learned German, Von Spruner, was published, with most 
elaborate and exact maps of Greece, of the Roman Empire, 
of mediaeval Europe, German}', Ital}', etc., but not a single 
map showing geological formations. A clearer understand- 
ing of the importance of the physical structure of the earth 
would have made his maps much better than they are. 

It is needless to say that in any exposition of these rela- 
tions, constant use must be made of maps ; in fact, the work 
cannot be carried on without them. The difBculties in the 
way of preparing such representations are great, for we need 
to exhibit each portion of the earth's surface as something 
cut out by the hands of a sculptor, which has a distinct phy- 
siognomy, to be recognized and known as definitely as our 
own physiognomies are known. The most direct method 
is b}' the relief map or atlas. But the difficulty of repre- 
senting a solid upon a plane surface has been to some extent 
overcome, difi"ercnt elevations being represented by different 
colors. 



224 PHYSICAL GEOGKAPHY AND HISTORY. 

Observe some of the things which a good physical map of 
the United States tells us. You see a long extent of sea- 
board, with mountains receding from the coast. When the 
first settlers landed, they found a wall, from 3500 to 7000 
feet high, hemming them in. We see here the door through 
which the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad goes west ; also 
the path of the Erie Canal. We see where the Pennsyl- 
vania people found a path over the mountains, and others 
after them. Without a ph^'sical map of North America, the 
unit^- of the French dominions, Canada and Louisiana, would 
hardly be discerned ; with such a map, this unity is made 
strikingly evident, and the process of acquisition becomes 
clear. A glance at the broad basin of the Mississippi, as rep- 
resented upon such a map, will show that it was predestined 
to become one of the greatest granaries of the world. The 
history of the peculiar attitude of California during the civil 
war can be studied onl}^ in the light of its phj'sical relations 
to the rest of the Union. Thus, the history of this country 
was largely written before man came here. It is written on 
the map, and every citizen ought to have it written on his 
mind. Every student of political history or political economy 
should understand these great plysical features of his coun- 
try, not only in broad outline, but in detail. 

As examples of exposition of our physical geography, one 
may mention Professor Shaler's chapter in Winsor's forth- 
coming Narrative and Critical History of America, the 
prefatory chapter in Palfrey's New England, and Professor 
Whitney's chapter in the Gmde-Book to the Yosemite, and in 
Walker's Statistical Atlas of the United States, whose ma])s 
also are highl}' useful. 

If we turn to Europe, the connection between phj'sieal 
geography and history is presented in the same striking way, 
and in even greater variety. Observe on an}- relief map how 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY, 225 

manifestly the plain of Lombardy and Veuetia, carved out 
at the base of the enormous wall of the vVlps, seems formed 
to be the garden of Europe and the theatre of wars. As for 
Greece, it is no exaggeration to sa}' that he who does not 
understand its physical conformation can have no proper 
conception of its political history-. The connection between 
the two is admirably displayed in the opening pages of 
Curtius' History of Greece, and in a delightful chapter 
in Taine's Lectures on Art, in which book a similar service 
is also done for Flanders. Also of note is Professor 
Conrad Bursian's essay, Ueher den Einfluss der Natur des 
Griechischen Landes cmf den Charakter seiner Bewohner, in 
the Jahresherichte of the Geographische Gesellschafl in Miin- 
c7ie7i, 1877, Further west, notice the remarkable cut from 
the Mediterranean to the North Sea (the valleys of the 
Rhone and Rhine) , which made a Lotharingia possible, A 
relief map of France makes clear the reasons for the direc- 
tions taken by the several invading tribes in 406 a.d. The 
position of Belfort, commanding the upper Rhine valle}-, 
explains the ^^gor with which it was defended in 1870 ; we 
see, too, why Germany fixed her boundaiy where she did. 
Again, in England, who does not know, to mention one 
illustration only, how decisive was the influence of such 
geographical features as the great forests upon the course of 
the English conquest of Britain? (See Guest's Origines 
Celticae, 1882, Green's Making of England, and Professor 
Pearson's valuable Historical Maps.) For similar illustra- 
tions, one may consult with profit Professor Archibald 
Geikie's paper on TJie Geological Influences zvhich have 
affected English History, in Macmillan, March, 1882. If 
we turn to Asia, the connection between its great plains 
and the careers of its great conquerors could scarcely be 
more evident than it is. 



226 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY. 

All these are isolated and random illustrations. Indefi- 
nitely multiplied, as they might easil}' be, they would irresist- 
ibly force the conviction that the influence of physical geog- 
raphy upon history is a matter which no one can afford to 
neglect, and that a teacher of histor}^ who does not make fre- 
quent use of physical maps commits a grave error. 

It ma}' not be amiss to mention that prominent among the 
standard worlcs of general scope which may be used in such 
studies are, beside the books of Hitter and Peschel, Professor 
Guyot's Earth and Man, G. P. Marsh's The Earth as Modi- 
fied by Human Action, and Frederick von Hellwald's Die 
Erde U7id Hire VolJcer. Into the minor literature it is impos- 
sible here to enter (an important specimen is Wilhelm Ros- 
cher's Betrachtnngen iiber die geograjyhische Lage der grossen 
Stddte, in his Ansichten, I., pp. 317-363), but it can be 
found, clearly arranged, in the bibliographical lists in suc- 
cessive volumes of Petermann's Mittheilungen, the best of 
geographical journals. An index to the maps in Petermann 
is now appearing in the Harvard University Bidletin. As to 
wall-maps, the most useful are perhaps the new Kiepert 
series and Professor Guyot's. 



Why do Children Dislike History? 



By Thomas Wentworth Higginson. 



IT has always seemed to me creditable to the lirains of 
children that they dislike what we call the study of 
history. It is siireh' unfair to blame them, when they cer- 
tainly like it quite as well as do their parents. The father 
brings home to his little son, from the public library, the 
first volume of Hildreth's United States, and says to him, 
"There, my son, is a book for you, and there are five more 
volumes just like it." Then he goes back to his Sunday 
Herald^ and his wife reverts to Bid Yet a Woman, or 3f/-. 
Isaacs; both feeling that they have done their dut}' to the 
child's mind. Would they ever read through the six volumes 
of Hildreth consecutively for themselves? 

Yet it needs but little reflection to see that no study is in 
itself — apart from the treatment — so interesting as history. 
For what is it that most interests CA'^ery child? Human 
beings. What is history ? The record of human beings, 
that is all. 

We are accustomed to say, and truly, that every child is a 
born naturalist. But where is the child who would not at any 
time leave the society of animals for that of human beings ? 
Even the bear and the raccoon are not personally more inter- 
esting to the country boy than to hear the endless tales of the 
men who have trapped the one and shot the other. The boy 
b}' the seaside would rather listen to the sailors' yarns than 
go fishing. Even stories about animals must have the human 



228 WHY DO CHILDREN DISLIKE HISTORY? 

element thrown in, to ma,ke them full}' fascinating ; children 
must hear, not only about the wolf and his den, but about 
General Putnam, who went into it ; and they would rather 
hear about Indian wars than either, because there all the par- 
ticipants are men. The gentlest girl likes to read the Swiss 
Famihj Robinson, or to dress up for a "centennial tea-party." 
But early Puritan history is all Swiss Family Robinson with 
man}- added excitements thrown in ; and the colonial and 
revolutionary periods are all a centennial tea-party. If we 
could only make the characters live and move, with their own 
costume and their own looks, in our instruction, the}' would 
absorb the attention of every child. 

It is idle to say, "But children prefer fiction to fact." 
Not at all ; they prefer fact to fiction, if it is only made 
equally interesting. The test is this. Tell a boy a story, 
which he supposes to ])e true, and then disclose that it is all 
an invention. If the boy preferred fiction to fact, he would 
be pleased. Not at all ; he is disappointed. On the other 
hand, if, after telling some absorbing and marvellous tale, 
you can honestly add, " My dear child, all this really hap- 
pened to your father when he was little, or to your respected 
great-grandmother," the child is delighted. 

In truth, the whole situation, in respect to history-, is 
described in that well-known conversation between the Eng- 
lish clergyman and the play-actor. "Why is it," asked the 
clergyman, " that you, who represent what ever3^body knows 
to be false, obtain more attention than we who deal in the 
most momentous reahties ! " "It is," said the actor, "because 
you represent the truth so that it seems like fiction, while we 
depict fiction in such a manner that it has the effect of 
truth." 

The moral of it all is, that the fault is not in the child, but 
in us who write the books and teach the lessons. History 



WHY DO CHILDREN DISLIKE HISTORY? 229 

is but a series of tales of human beings. Human beings 
form the theme which is of all things most congenial to the 
child's mind. If the subject loses all its charms by our 
handling, the fault is ours, and we should not blame the 
child. 



Gradation and the Topical Method of 
HiSTOEiCAL Study. 



By Professor W. F. Allen, Wisconsin University. 



FOR instruction in historj-, as in other branches, there 
are three distinct periods to be considered : childhood, 
school-life, and college-life. For the first of these I have 
nothing to offer beyond the excellent remarks made by our 
author on page 139. What the child needs is to have the 
imagination quickened, and the memory stored with incidents 
and associations. It is not so necessary that there should 
be any definite plan or order in the acquisition of these 
interesting stories, great names, and important events. The 
mind merely needs to have associations and memories of 
these ; their arrangement will come later. 

Formal instruction in history, he goes on to say, may 
begin at about the age of ten ; but the length of time that it 
is to be kept up differs ver^' greatly with different pupils, and 
it is obvious that we cannot advantageously lay out the same 
course for those who are to go to college, those who are to 
pass through the high school merely, and those who have to 
be satisfied with a grammar-school education. The begin- 
ning, however, must be nearly the same with all, and it will 
be found that the longest course will, in the main, coincide 
with the shorter ones, so far as they go. 

All alike must begin with the history of their own country, 
and with this a considerable proportion of the pupils must 
be content. So far there is no difference of opinion. When, 
however, we pass to the next stage, and ask what branch of 
history should follow that of the United States, the answers 



232 GRADES AND TOPICS IN 

would l)c various. The usual practice is to take up General 
History at this point ; but I think the practice is not a wise 
one. Very few pupils at this age have a sufficiently devel- 
oped historical sense to follow intelligently the fortunes of 
several nations side by side, now studying the separate his- 
tory of each country independently, then passing to the com- 
plicated international relations, which make up the current 
of modern history. In antiquity there was but one empire 
at a time. General history is, therefore, the separate histo- 
ries of Egypt, Ass^'ria, Persia, etc., taken up successively. 
In modern times these separate histories have to be taken up 
contemporaneously. There is no one thread to be followed, 
but a multitude of threads to be woven into a connected whole ; 
and my experience is, that an attempt to do this, with only 
the preparation that the study of United States history gives, 
results, for most scholars, in a bewildering confusion. 

Our author la3^s down the correct principle on page 146 : 
'' The way to that which is general is through that which is 
special." General history cannot be profitably studied until, 
first, the historical imagination has been trained and the his- 
torical sense developed by abundance of stories, and by 
instruction in national history ; and, secondly, at least one 
of the separate threads has been traced by itself, and a cer- 
tain degree of familiarity thus gained with the leading events 
which are to come under consideration. The separate annals 
of at least one country should be studied before general his- 
tory is begun. Which country should be selected for this 
purpose for American schools can, of course, be no question. 
American citizens need to know the history of England next 
to that of their own country. I should even desire that a 
second thread should be taken up by itself — in the history 
of France or Germany — before general history is studied ; 
but this is not essential. 



HISTOKICAL STUDY. 233 

Further details must depend upon the extent of the course 
and its object. If there can be but one term's work, besides 
United States history, I would have the history of England. 
If there is plenty of time, I would have ancient history, 
English history, and French history all precede general his- 
tory-, or, if need be, take its place. 

But I can conceive of something better even than this. 
To go liaek to our first question : What does the American 
boy really need, who is to have only one term of history 
before he goes out into the world, and becomes an American 
citizen ? Would not everybody admit that, while the Plan- 
tagenets are of more importance for him than the Hohen- 
staufen, and Oliver Cromwell than Gustavus Adolphus, the 
events and personages of the last hundred years are of more 
importance than either? 

Let us pass now to the college course. Only a very small 
proportion of our people go through a college course, and of 
these only a small proportion — under our present system 
of elective studies — take any extended course in history. 
Here, too, I have tried a good many experiments, and have 
anived at a scheme which appears to answer my require- 
ments very well. 

The field of history is so vast and varied that it is impos- 
sible, in any college course, to treat all the subjects that 
deserve to be taken up. All that we can do is to lay out a 
course, or a number of courses, which appear to meet, as a 
whole, the needs of the largest number, and which will allow 
selection, in accordance with tastes, to those who do not care 
to take it as a whole. 

We require for admission, in the classical courses of this 
University, ancient history, the history of the United States, 
and the history of England. We are able, therefore, to take 
for granted something of an acquaintance with the leading 



234 GRADES AND TOPICS IN 

events and characters of ancient and modern times. The 
only history which is required in our curriculum is a term of 
United States history for the juniors of the classical depart- 
ment. Besides this, there are three elective courses, each 
carried through the 3'ear : one as a full course, the others as 
half courses. 

In la^'ing out this work, we are not limited, as in the 
common schools, by the necessity of considering what is 
most essential for those who are soon to leave school. We 
are not to lay out a single course which all must follow, but 
a series of courses, which may be taken either in whole or in 
part, according to individual tastes. Even here, however, 
there is a natural order which should be insisted on, so far 
as possible, for those who take the whole course. We must 
begin with what is most indispensable. It is all very well 
to sa}- that dates and dynasties are of only secondary 
importance, and that it is the history of ideas and of 
social progress that we want. There can be no history with- 
out dates and dynasties. The}^ are to the nobler parts of 
history what the skeleton is to the body. All the beauty of 
the bod}' and all its seeming energy are in the external parts ; 
but what would they be without the framework of bones ? So, 
in history, we can have no sui'e and adequate comprehension 
of the movement of the great forces of society, without the 
skeleton of the history of events. Now, all events take 
place in two relations, — time and place. The indispensable 
foundation of history is, therefore, a knowledge of chronol- 
ogy, — of historical distances, — and of historical geography-, 
in connection with the changes of empire. Territorial and 
dynastic history — the study of the successive empires and 
dynastic powers of the world — forms the first course, 
which should precede the others. 

Next to the knowledge of empires, the most necessary, 



HISTORICAL STUDY. 235 

if the least important branch of history, comes the study 
of the organized action of mankind. The study of institu- 
tions, of their organic reUxtion to one another in constitu- 
tions of government, and of the political conflicts that have 
grown out of these, forms naturally the second com'se. 
After this, and not till then, the history of thought, of soci- 
ety, of ideas, can be profitably taken up. We have thus 
three independent courses, affording an approximately com- 
plete survey of the field of history, or at least preparation 
for further independent study. But although this is the nat- 
ural order of study, it is not necessary to adhere to it over- 
scrupulously. The student has already, in a general way, 
studied the dynastic history of Greece, Rome, and England ; 
has thus acquired a consecutive, if partial, view of ancient 
and modern times. He is, therefore, prepared to take up 
the special study of the institutions of Greece and Rome, 
with which, moreover, he is already somewhat familiar from 
his classical studies, without waiting for the extended course 
in dynastic history. He may even, without great disadvan- 
tage, pass at once to the study of mediaeval and modern 
institutions. 

As to method, I have also experimented a great deal. For 
college classes — elective classes especially — nothing seems 
to me a greater waste of force than to spend the hour with 
a text-book in my hand, hearing the students repeat what is 
in the book. Lecturing, however satisfactory in the German 
universities, I do not find suited to the wants of my students 
as a regular mode of instruction. For suggestion and for 
review it may be employed with great advantage ; and for 
regular instruction in fields in which there is no suitable text- 
book, I am often obliged to have recourse to it. But it 
requires, to be cflScacious, constant questioning, thorough 
examinations, and occasional inspection of note-books. 



23G GRADES AXD TOPICS IN 

In the method which I have at last settled upon, my aim 
has been to get some of the benefits which students in the 
natural sciences acquire from work in laboratories. Stu- 
dents of the age and maturit}^ of juniors and seniors can get 
the greatest advantage from historical study l.)y doing some 
independent work akin to laboratory work. I would not be 
understood as claiming that this is original investigation, in 
any true sense of the term. Laboratory work in chemistry 
or physics is not original investigation, neither is the study 
of topics in history. The object, it must be remembered, is 
education, not historical investigation ; and the object of the 
educational process is not merely to ascertain facts, but even 
more : to learn how to ascertain facts. For the student, as 
a piece of training, historians like Prescott and Bancroft 
may stand in the place of original authorities. To gather 
facts from them, really at second hand, has for the student 
much of the educational value of first-hand work. Of course, 
there is a difference in students, and the work done by some 
is of a much higher grade than that of others. For the best 
students it easily and frequently passes into the actual study 
of authorities at first hand. 

In studying by topics I alwaj's desire that the class should 
have a text-book — a brief compendium — upon which they 
are liable to be questioned and examined, and which will 
serve at any rate as a basis and guide of work. My method 
is then to assign for every day — as long beforehand as pos- 
sible — special topics to two or three students, which they 
are to study with as great thoroughness as possible in all the 
works to which they have access, and present orally in the 
class, writing out a syllabus beforehand upon the blackboard. 
If they write out the topic, and depend upon a written paper, 
they are much less likely to be certain of their ground and 
independent in their treatment. 



HISTOKICAL STUDY. 237 

The topical method here described is successful in propor- 
tion to the abundance and accessibility of books of refer- 
ence. In American history it works best, and here I employ 
no other. In the dynastic history of ancient and modern 
times, it is satisfactory in most cases. I combine with it 
constant map-drawing, and the preparation of a synchron- 
istic chart. In the more advanced couvses, owing to the 
deficiency of good books of reference, it is necessary to 
abandon the metliod, or combine it with lectures, recitations, 
and written essays. It is, of course, impossible to assign 
topics which cover the whole ground. It is possible, how- 
ever, to select for this purpose all the names and events of 
iirst importance, and it is one of the advantages of the topi- 
cal method that it thus affords an opportunity to emphasize 
those facts of history which most need emphasis. It is the 
special function of the teacher to supplement the topics, to 
point out their relative importance and their connection with 
one another, and to help the students in acquiring a com- 
plete and accurate general view. 



PART I. 

HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 

1. Primitive Society. 

C. F. Keary. The Dawn of History : An Introduction to Pre- 
liistoric Study. L.* Mozley & Smith. $1.50. 

XE. G, Tylor. Early History of Mankind. N.Y. Holt. !l!3.50. 

%Id. Primitive Culture. 2 v. N.Y. Holt. -17.00. 

Xld. Anthropology. N.Y. App. $2.00. 

Mr. Tylor's books present the best picture of primitive society, 
and summary of the present condition of the inquiry. 

XSir John Luhhock. Pre-historic Times. N.Y. App. $5.00. 

Chiefly devoted to archsBology. 
Id. Origin of Civilization. N.Y. App. $2.00. 
XH. Spencer. Ceremonial Institution.s. App. $1.25. 
Xld. Political Institutions. App. $1.50. 

These works describe the evolution of governmental institutions. 

* In this list only books in the English language are given, with the 
exception of a few of prime importance. Works written in a foreign lan- 
guage, whether in the original or translated, are indicated by a dagger (t). 
Books of especial importance are indicated by the double dagger ({). 
Abbreviated titles are given, except where the full title contains a descrip- 
tion of the book. In the abbreviations, App. stands for Appleton; B., for 
Boston; Ber., for Berlin ; C, for Cassell ; C. & H., for Chapman & Hall ; 
Ch., for Chicago; E. & L., for Estes & Lauriat; Ed., for Edinburgh; H., for 
Harper; L., for London; Lip., for Lippincott; Longm., for Longmans; Lp., 
for Leipsic; L. & B., for Little, Brown, & Co.; L. & S., for Lee & Shepard; 
M., for Murray; Macm., for Macmillan; O., for Osgood; P., for Paris; Ph., 
for Philadelphia ; Put., for Putnams ; R., for Roberts ; Scr., for Scribner ; 
S. & E., for Smith, Elder, & Co.; W. & N., for Williams & Norgate. E.S. 
stands for Epochs Series (Scribner) ; and Soc, for Society for the Diffusion 
of Christian Knowledge (Young) . 



240 HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 

tL. H. Morgan. Ancient Society. N.Y. Holt. ^4.00. 

The best analysis of the structure of primitive society, based 
upon an intimate knowledge of the institutions of the North 
American Indians. The later portions less reliable. 

J. F. McLennan. Studies in Ancient History. L. Quaritch. 

Controverts Mr. Morgan's theories, and finds the origin of the 
family in marriage by capture. 

W. E. Hearn. The Aryan Household. L. Longm. !$6.40. 

The most complete treatise upon the structure and development 
of primitive society. 

XFustel de Coulanges. The Ancient City.f B. L. & S. $2.00. 

A remarkable book, affording the best key to the origin and 
much of the history of the Greek and Roman institutions. 

XSir H. S. Maine. Ancient Law : its Connection with the Early 
History of Society, and its Relation to Modern Ideas. N.Y. 
Holt. .I3..50. • 

Invaluable as an introduction to the history of institutions. 

Id. Village Communities. N.Y. Holt. f3..50. 

This work introduced the theory of village communities to the 
English public. 

tid. Early History of Institutions. N.Y. Holt. p.50. 
Devoted especially to the early institutions of Ireland. 

Id. Dissertations upon Early Custom and Law. N.Y. Holt. 
A collection of essays and lectures. 

XE. de Laveleye. Primitive Property.f L. Macm. .f3.50. 

The most complete elaboration of the theory of primitive com- 
munity of property. 

Sir A. C. Lyall. Asiatic Studies. M. 

Papers full of valuable observation and study. 

E. Nasse. Agricultural Community of the Middle Ages.f W. & N. 
The theory of village communities applied to England. 

B. W. Ross. Early History of Land-holding among the Germans. 
B. Soule & Bugbee. 

Controverts the theory of village commimities. 



HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 241 

John Fenton. Early Hebrew Life. L. Triibner. 

A. F. Bandelier. On the Art of War and Mode of Warfare among 
the Ancient Mexicans. — On the Distribution and Tenure of 
Land, etc. — On the Social Organization and Mode of Govern- 
ment, etc. 

Three papers of great value, reprinted from the reports of the 

Peabody Museum of Ethnology for 1877-8-9. 

/. J. Bachofen. Das Mutterrecht.f Stuttgart. 1861. 

A pioneer work ; treats of inheritance in the female line, as an 
institution of primitive society. 

See also the following articles : by E. Nasse, in Cont. Rev., May, 
1872, upon Village Communities ; by /. F. McLennan, in Fortn. 
Rev., 18GG, upon Kinship in Ancient Greece, and in 18G9-70, 
upon Worship of Animals and Plants [theory of totems] ; by 
F. H. Cushing, in the Atl. Monthly, Sept. and Oct., 1882, upon 
the Nation of the Willows [the Zuiiis of New Mexico] ; by W. 
F. Allen, in Peun Monthly, June, 1880, upon the points at issue 
between Mr. Morgan and Mr. McLennan. 

A utkorities. 

Books of travel, etc., containing graphic and accurate accounts of savage 
and barbarjus society. 

Herbert Spencer. Descriptive Sociology. — Div. 1 : Uncivilized 
Societies ; Div. 2 : Ancient Mexicans, etc. 8 parts, each $4.00. 
A classified collection of facts. 

L. H. Movfjan. Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human 
Family. Vol. XVII. (1870) of the Smithsonian Contributions. 
A very extensive and remarkable collection of facts. 
Id. League of the Iroquois. Rochester. 1851. 

XF. Parkman. The Oregon Trail. B. L. & B. -|2.50. 
Perhaps the most vivid picture of Indian life. 

XDuvid Livingstone. Missionaiy Travels and Researches in South 
Africa. H. $4.50. 



242 HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 

H. M. Stanley. Through the Dark Continent. 2 v. H. $10.00. 

G. Schweinfurth. The Heart of Africa. 2 v. H. fS.OO. 

X W. G. Palgrave. A Year's Travel in Arabia. Macm. $2.00. 

/. A. McGalian. Campaigning on the Oxus. H. |3.50. 
Contains an excellent account of nomadic life. 

XLord Pembroke. Old New Zealand. L. Bentley. 

Contains a forcible picture of the evils worked by contact with 
civilization. 

H. Rink. Tales and Traditions of the Eskimo. Ed. Blackwood. 

XG.W.Dasent. Story of Burnt Njal. Ed. Edmonston. $7.50. 
Presents a vivid picture of early German society. 

X Homer's Iliad, translated in prose by Lang, etc.; and Odyssey, by 
Butcher and Lang. Each, $1..50. 

A portrayal of early Greek society and institutions. 

D. M. Wallace. Russia. Holt. $2-00. 

Contains the best account of the Mir, or Russian village com- 
munity. 

A. J. Evans. Through Bosnia and Herzegovina. Longm. 

Contains a description of the Slavonian family communities. 

J. W. Probyn. Systems of Land Tenure in Various Countries. C. 
$L75. 

The essays upon India, Germany, and Russia, describe systems 
of land community. 

Sir J. B. Phear. The Aryan Village in India and Ceylon. Macm. 



See also the publications of the American Bureau of Ethnology, the 
Peabody Museum, the American Archaeological Institute, and 
kindred institutions; and the list of books upon the Indians 
of America. 



HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 243 

2. Mythology. 

JiV IX Muller. Chips from a Gennan Workshop. .5 v. N.Y. Scr. 

$10.00. 

These essays laid the foundation for the study of comparative 
mj^thology and folk-lore. 

JC. F. Keary. Outlines of Primitive Belief. N.Y. Scr. i$2..50. 
Especially of the Greeks, Hindoos, and Scandinavians. 

J. A. Hartung. Die Religion und Mythologie der Griechen.f 4 v. 
Lp. Engelmann. 

The first volume contains perhaps the best introduction to the 
study of mythology. 

Sir G. W. Cox. Introduction to Science of Comparative Mythology 
and Folk-lore. Holt. .$2..50. 

XTcl. Mythology of the Aryan Nations. Longm. i?4.50. 

A comparative view of the Indian, Greek, and German systems 
of mythology. 

John Fiske. Myths and Myth-Makers. Houghton. !i?2.00. 

A popular account of the way in which myths are formed. 

A. S. Murray. Manual of Mythology. N.Y. Scr. i|2.25. 
Chiefly devoted to that of Greece : with illustrations. 

XL. Preller. Griechische Mythologie.f Ber. Weidmann. 

tid. Rbmische Mythologie.f Ber. Weidmann. 

Preller's are the best and most compendious treatises. 

J/. Grimm. Teutonic Mythology.f 2 v. L. Bell. 
An exhaustive and invaluable treatise. 

R. B. Anderson. Norse Mythology. Ch. Griggs. $2.50. 

D. G. Brinton. Myths of the New World. Ph. Watts. §2.00. 

Ethnic Relif/ions. 

C. P. Tiele. History of Religion. Houghton. $3.00. 
The best work of a general character. 

J. F. Clarice. Ten Great Religions. Houghton. $3.00. 

A popular comparative view of the principal ethnic religions. 



244 HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 

JHibbert Lectures : — 

1878. Max Mailer. The Origin and Growth of Religion, as 

illustrated by the Religions of India. Scr. 

1879. P. Le Page Renouf. Id., Ancient Egypt. Scr. 

1881. T.W.Rhys- Davids. Id., Buddhism. " Put. 

1882. A. Kuenen. National Religions and Universal Religions. 

J Non-Christian Religious Systems. Soc. 
Monier Williams. Hinduism. 
T. W. Rhys-Davids. Buddhism. 
R. K. Douglas. Confucianism and Taoiusm. 
/. H. W. Stohart. Islam and its Founders. 
Sir William Muir. The Coran. 

1j,S. .Johnson. Oriental Religions : I.India; II. China; III. Persia. 
Houghton. ^5.00. 

A. Earth. Religions of India. Houghton. 

O. Keitner. Buddha and his Doctrines. L. Triibner. 

J. Edkins. Chinese Buddhism. Houghton. 

/. Legge. Life and Teaching of Confucius. 

M. Haug. The Religion of the Parsis. Houghton. M-50. 

JC. P. Tiele. Comparative History of the Egyptian and Mesopo- 
tamian Religions. Part I. : Egypt. L. 

See also articles by Monier Williams, on Indian Religious Thought, 
Cont. Rev., 1878, and on Religion of Zoroaster, 19th Cent., Jan., 
1881; by W. F. Allen, on the Religion of the Ancient Greeks, 
N. Am. Rev., July, 1869 ; and the Ancient Romans, July, 1871 ; 
by Jas. Darmesteter, in Cont. Rev., Oct., 1879, on Supreme God 
in Indo-European Mythology; by /. N. Hoare, in 19th Cent., 
Dec, 1878, on Religion of Ancient Egyptians ; in Edin. Rev., 
Oct., 1881, on the Koran ; by K. Bliiul, in N. Am. Rev., Oct., 
1872, on the German World of Gods ; by F. Lenormant, in Cont. 
Rev., 1880, on the Eleusinian Mysteries ; by C. T. Newton, in 



HISTORICAL LTTERATUEE AND AUTHORITIES. 245 

19th Cent., June, 1878, on the Religion of the Greeks as Illus- 
trated by Inscriptions. For the truest conception of Greek 
mythology : Ruskin's Modern Painters, Part IV., Chap. 13. 

Authorities. 

Sacred Books of the East. 11 vols. Macm. 
The Elder Edda. L. Trubner. 
The Younger Edda. Ch. Griggs. 



3. History of Society. 
XH. Spencer. The Study of Sociology. App. !|1.50. 

W. Bagehot. Physics and PoHtics. .|1.50. 

Analyzes the causes of progress. 
%A. Comte. The Positive Philosophy. f 2 v. App. 

The second volume contains an application of the positive philos- 

oj)hy to historical phenomena. 

F. Schlegel. The Philosophy of History.f 

Id. Lectures on the History of Literature, Ancient and Modern.f 

These old works are still unsurpassed in their field. 
R. Flint. The Philosophy of History in France and Germany. 

Baron de Montesquieu. The Spirit of Laws.f Cincinnati. 

A work of great insight, first published in 1748. 
%J. W. Draper. The Intellectual Development of Europe. 2 v. 

H. $3.00. 
\H. T. Buckle. Introduction to History of Civilization in England. 
2 V. App. $4.00. 

Draper and Buckle write from the point of view of the control- 
ling influence of physical causes. 

G. P. Marsh. Man and Nature. Scr. -12.00. 

Treats of the influence of man and the earth upon each other. 
A. Blanqui. History of Political Economy in Europe.f $3.00. 

Sir T. E. May. Democracy in Europe. 2 v. Longm. 

E. Viollet-le-duc. The Habitations of Man in all Ages.f L. Low. 



246 HISTORICAL LITERATURE AJSTD AUTHORITIES. 



4. General, History. 

W. Oncken. Allgemeine Geschichte in Einzeldarstellungen.f Ber. 
G. Grote. 300 marks. 

A series of works by writers of high authority. The following are 
already published : G. F. Hertzherg, Hellas und Roin ; Das 
Rbniische Kaiserreich. F. Dahn, Urgeschichte der Germani- 
schen und Romanischen Volker. Af. Philij^pso?!, Zeitalter Lud- 
wigs XIV. A. Stern, Revolution in England. A. Bruckner, 
Peter der Grosse. W. Oncken, Zeitalter Friedrichs des Grossen. 

E. A. Freeman. General Sketch [in Freeman's Hist. Series]. Holt. 
$1.00. 

The best brief outline of general history. 
%Td. Historical Geography of Europe. 2 v. [vol. ii., maps]. $12.00. 

An elaborate and accurate work ; the best there is. 
XLeopold von Ranke. AVeltgeschichte.f 3 vols, already published. 

A summary of the best results of scholarship by the greatest 

living master. Translation of Vol. I. H. 

K. von Spruner. Handatlas der Geschichte.f In three parts. 

1. Atlas Antiquus. 

2. Europa. Revised by Th. Menke. [English edition by W. & 

N., £4 14s. 6rf.] 

3. Asia, Africa, America, and Austi'alia. 

Altogether the best and completest historical atlas. 

|iV. Bouillet. Dictionnaire Universel d'Histoii'e et de Geographie. 
P. Hachette. 

{/(/. Atlas Universel d'Histoire et de Geographic. 

These works of Bouillet are the best books of reference. 

/. Haydn. Dictionary of Dates. App. |6.00. 

The best brief compendium of chronology, revised to 1883. 

H. B. George. Genealogical Tables. Macm. $3.00. 
The best in English. 

XS. Willard. Synopsis of History. App. 

Chronological and genealogical tables of the highest merit. 



HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 247 

C. K. Adams. Mani;al of Historical Literatiu-e. H. $2.50. 
The best guide to historical reading. 

W. F. Allen. Reader's Guide to English History. B. Ginn, Heath, 
&Co. 

With a supplement giving brief references to the history of 
other countries and periods. 

See also articles by E. A. Freeman, in Fortn. Rev., May, 1881, on 
the Study of History ; by /. Gairdner, in Cont. Rev., Oct., 1880, 
on Sources of History. 

Periodicals. 

JHistorische Zeitschrift. By H. von Syhel. Miinchen (bi-monthly). 
The oldest and leading historical periodical. 

JRevue Historique. By G. Monod and G. Fagniez.-f P. (bi-monthly). 
Especially valuable for its survey of current historical literature. 

Mittheilungen aus der Historischen Literatur.f By F. HirscJi. 
Ber. (quarterly). 

Consists exclusively of book reviews. 

Jahresberichte der Geschichtswissenschaft. Ber. 
An annual review of historical literature. 

Das Historisclie Taschenbuch. Lp. 

An auuual collection of historical essays. 

The Antiquary. Published by Elliot Stock. L. (monthly). 

Devoted to antiquities rather than history. 
JThe Magazine of American Histoi-y. (Monthly.) N.Y. Barnes. 

A periodical of high excellence. 
The American Antiquarian. By S. D. Peet. Ch. (quarterly). 

Devoted to the entire field of antiquities. 

Besides these, several of the State Historical Societies publish 
periodicals or regular volumes of Transactions. 



248 HisTomcAi. literature and authorities. 



5. Ancient History. 

XPhilip Smith. A History of the World. Ancient History. 3 v. App. 
$6.00. 

The best English histor.y of antiquity. 

A.H.L. He.eren. Historical Researches into the Politics, Intercourse, 
and Trade of the Principal Nations of Antiquity.f 6 v. Ox. 
An old but valuable book. 
XG. Rawlinson. A Manual of Ancient History. H. i$1.25. 

A careful and accurate compendium, with abimdant references 
to authorities and special treatises. 

P. V. N. Myers. Outlines of Ancient History. H. 1882. fl.75. 

A good compendium for non-classical readers. 
E. A. Freeman. Historical P^ssays. Second Series. Macm. $3.50. 

This series is devoted to ancient history. 



J. J. Winckelmann. History of Ancient Art. 2 v.f O. $9.00. 

The starting-point of study in the history of ancient art. 
tF. von Reher. History of Ancient Art.f H. |2.50. 

An excellent compendium, well illustrated. 

G. G. Zerffi.. Manual of the Historical Development of Art. L. 
Hardwicke. 

XS. R. Koehler. Illustrations of the History of Art. Series 1 : 
Ancient Architecture, Sculpture, etc. B. Prang. 1879. 
Series 5 contains the History of Painting. 

K. O. Mailer. Ancient Art and its Remains. L. Quaritch. 

The German edition is accompanied by two vols, of illustrations. 

W. C. Perry. Popular Introduction to the History of Greek and 
Roman Sculpture. Longm. $12.00. 

A . S. Murray. History of Ancient Sculpture. M. 

Jnmes Fergusson. History of Architecture. 2 v. M. |24.00. 



HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 249 

Ancient Classics for Modern Readers. Lipp. $1.00. 

Twenty-eight small volumes, containing excellent short accounts 
of the principal authors. 

Classical Writers. Edited by J. R. Green. App. 60 cts. 

A similar series, containing fewer treatises, but of the highest 
excellence. 

W. C. Wilkinson. Preparatory Greek Course in English. N.Y. 
Phillips & Hunt. 

Especially adapted to non-classical readers. 



W. Smith. Dictionary of Antiquities. M. $6.00. 

Id. Dictionary of Classical Biography and Mythology. 3 v. M. 

-118.00. 

Id. Dictionary of Classical Geography. 2 v. M. $12.00. 

Id. Classical Atlas. M. $40.00. 

The most complete works of reference. Smaller works are : — 

A. Rich. Dictionary of Antiquities. 

W. Smith. Classical Dictionary. H. 

E. Guhl and W. Koner. The Life of the Greeks and Romans. L. 
Chatto & Windus. $4.00. 



6. Oriental History. 

XM. Duncker. History of Antiquity. 6 v.f L. Bentley. $50.00. 

Covers only the oriental period, but is the best compendium for 
this period. 

F. Lenurmant and E. Chevallier. Manual of the Ancient History 
of the East.t 2 v. L. Asher. 1869. $5.50. 

F. Lenormant. The Beginnings of History. f Scr. $2.50. 



250 HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 

G. Rmvlinson. The Origin of Nations. Scr. $1.50. 

XFd. The Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World 
[Chald?ea, Assyria, Babylon, Media, and Persia]. Dodd, Mead, 
& Co. $6.00. 

Td. The Sixth Great Monarchy [Parthia]. Dodd, Mead, & Co. $2.00. 

rd. The Seventh Great Oriental Monarchy [Sassanidse]. 14.00. 

Id. History of Ancient Egypt. 2 v. B. Cassino. $4.00. 

All Canon Rawlinson's works are marked by learning and ability. 
They are written from the point of view of the absolute authority 
of the Hebrew scriptures. 

XH. Bruffsch Bey. Egypt under the Pharaohs. 2 v. M. $12.00. 
The best history of Egypt, by one of the most distinguished 
Egyptologists. 

XSir J. G. Wilkinson. The Manners and Customs of the Ancient 
Egyptians. 3 v. M. $33.00. 

The standard work upon the subject. 
XH. Ebers. Egypt. C. 

An illustrated work of the highest excellence. 

XH. Eimld. History of Israel. 5 v. Longm. $26.00. 

By the greatest authority upon Hebrew history. 
H. H. Milman. History of the Jews. 3 v. N.Y. Widdleton. $5.25. 

A popular work. 

/. H. Alleii. Hebrew Men and Times. R. $1.50. 

E. H. Palmer. History of the Jewish Nation ; from the earliest 
times to the present day. Soc. $1.50. 

C.R.Conder. Life of Judas Maccabeus [New Plutarch]. Put. $1.00. 

XA. P. Stanley. History of the Jewish Church. 3 v. Scr. $7.50. 

J. Kenrick. Phoenicia. L. Fellowes. 

See also series of articles by R. Stuart-Poole in Cont. Rev., 1878-79, 
on Ancient Egypt. 



HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 251 

A uthorities. 
Records of the Past. 6 v. L. Bagster. |18.00. 
Ancient History from the Monuments. 6 v. Soc. Each, 75 cts. 
/. P. Cory. Ancient Fragments. L. Reeves. 



7. History of Greece. 

XGeo. Grote. History of Greece. 12 v. H. .f 18.00. 

The most complete history ; from a hberal point of view. 
Connop Thirlwall. History of Greece. 2 v. II. 

An excellent and scholarly work. 
XErnst Curtius. History of Greece. 5 v.f Scr. .f 10.00. 

The best German history ; a book of eloquence as well as 
scholarship. 

Sir G. W. Cox. General History of Greece. H. $1.25. 

The best short history. 
Wm. Smith. History of Greece. B. "Ware. $2.00. 

The American edition, edited by Pres.Felton, contains important 
additions, bringing it down to the present century. 

Id. Smaller History of Greece. H. 60 cts. 

T. T. Timayenis. A History of Greece from the Earliest Times to 
the Present. 2 v. App. |3.50. 

Interesting as the work of a native Greek, and covering the 
period of modern history. 

C. C. Felton. Greece, Ancient and Modern. 2 v. Houghton. %').(){). 
The best popular work on the history, literature, etc., of Greece. 

E. A. Freeman. History of Federal Government. Vol. I. Macm. 
$7.00. 

This, the only volume published, is chiefly devoted to the 
Achaean League. 

W. W. Lloyd. The Age of Pericles. 2 v. M. $6.00. 
Id. History of Sicily to the Athenian War. M. 



252 HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 

The following belong to the series of Epochs of ancient history : — 

S. G. W. Benjamin. Troy. $1.00. 

Sir G. W. Cox. The Greeks and the Persians. $1.00. 

/(/. The Athenian Empire. $1.00. 

C. Sanhey. The Spartan and Theban Supremacies. $1.00. 

A. M. Curteis. Rise of the Macedonian Empire. $1.00. 



C. Peter. Chronological Tables of Greek History. Macm. $3.00. 

/. P. Mahaffy. Social Life in Greece. Macm. 

W. A. Becker. Charicles. L. $3.00. 

A tale illustrating manners and customs. 

W. Mure. Critical History of the Language and Literature of 
Ancient Greece. 5 v. Longm. $85.00. 

This is the principal work ; a good short one is — 

J. P. Mahaffy. History of Classical Greek Literature. H. $4.00. 



8. Roman History. 

t Th. Mommsen. History of Rome. 4 v.f Scr. $8.00. 
The best history of Rome ; reaches B.C. 46. 

W. Ihne. History of Rome. 5 v.f Longm. $30.00. 

Gives less attention than Mommsen to legal and economical 
causes; is also more favorable to the Carthaginians. Reaches 
B.C. 78. 

Thos. Arnold. History of Rome. App. $3.00. 

Of bigh literary merit, but based upon Niebuhr in its view of 
Roman institutions, and therefore largely superseded by later 
researches. Reaches B.C. 202. 

Chas. Merivale. General History of Rome. App. $1.25. 

The best short history of Rome, reaching to the fall of the 
western empire, a.d. 476. 



HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 253 

H. G. Liddell. History of Rome. H. ,U1.25. 

Of a good deal of literary merit, founded chiefly upon Niebuhr, 
Reaches B.C. 30. 

W. Smith and E. Lawrence. Smaller History of Rome. H. GO cts. 
An excellent sketch, reaching a.d. 47G. 

A. Schwegler. Romische Geschichte. 2 v.f Tiibingen. 1853-58. 
^-1.70. 

An exhaustive cyclopaedia of Roman history, indispensable for 
the student ; reaches b.c. 390. A fourth volume, by O. Clason 
(Ber., Calvary), reaches b.c. 328. 

T. H. Dyer. The History of the Kings of Rome. Lip. $5.00. 

Maintains the traditionary view, against Niebuhr. The same 
view is presented with great learning and brilliancy by 

Fr. Dor. Gerlach and J. J. Bachofen. Geschichte der Romer.f 
Basel. 1851. Vol. I., i|2.60. 

The first volume, containing the history of the kings, is the only 
one ever published. 

V. Duruy. History of Rome. 6 v.f L. Kelly [now publishing]. 
Magnificently illustrated ; a work of high merit. 

XGeo. Long. The Decline of the" Roman Republic. 5 v. L. Bell. 
$28.00. 

An exhaustive collection of facts from B.C. 15i to 44, accom- 
'panied with acute criticism. 

%Chas. Meriimle. History of the Romans under the Empire. 7 v. 
App. $14.00. New edition, 4 v., $7.00. 

From B.C. 60 to a.b. 180. The best account of the period between 
Mommsen and Gibbon. 

R. Congreve. The Roman Empire of the West. L. Parker. $1.75. 
By an eminent positivist. 

J J. R. Seeley. Roman Imperialism. R. $1.50. 

Three lectures on the establishment and decline of the empire. 
%Edw. Gibbon. History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman 
Empire. 6 v. Lip. $12.00. 
The Students' Gibbon. H. $1.25. 

Gibbon is an indispensable guide for the twelve centuries from 
the accession of Commodus to the fall of Constantinople. 



254 HISTOEICAL LITEEATUKE AND AUTHORITIES. 

A. J. Mason. The Persecutions of Diocletian. L. Bell. $3.50. 

An attempt to viudicate Diocletian. 
X Thos. HodcjUn. Italy and her Invaders. 2 v. Macm. $8.00. 

A history of the Visigoths, Vandals, and Huns. 
C. Kingsley. The Roman and the Teuton. Macm. $1.75. 
W. E. H. Lecky. History of Eurox^ean Morals, from Augustus to 
Charlemagne. 2 v. App. |3.00. 



J The following belong to the series of Epochs of Ancient History : — 

William Ihne. Early Rome. $1.00. 

R. Bosworth Smith. Rome and Carthage. $1.00. 

.1. H. Beesly. The Gracchi, Marius, and Sulla. $1.00. 

Chas. Merivale. The Roman Triumvirates. $1.00. 

W. W. Capes. The Early Empire. $1.00. 

Id. The Age of the Antonines. $1.00. 



XW. S. Teuffel. History of Roman Literature.f $7.-50. 

Tlie best German work. The best English works are : — 
XG. A. Simcox. History of Latin Literature. 2 v. H. $4.00. 

XC. T. Cruhoell. History of Roman Literature. Scr. $2.50. 

An excellent short manual is 
L. Schmitz. History of Roman Literature. $1.25. 



XTh. Mommsen and J. Marquardt. Ilandbuch der Romischen 
Alterthumer. 7 v.f Lp. Ilirzel. Vol. L, $1.40; Vol. IL, 
Aleth. 1, $4.80, Aleth. 2, $3.30 ; Vol. HI., not out yet ; Vol. IV., 
$3.30 ; Vol. v., $4.05 ; Vol. VI., $4.05 ; Vol. VII., $0.60. 

Mommsen's jjartis Staatsrecht; Marquardt's, StaatsA^erwaltung. 
Neither is yet comijlete. This is the greatest work on Roman 
antiquities, superseding the earlier work by Becker and Mar- 
quardt (5 V. Lp.). 

W. A. Becker. Gallus. $3.00. 

A treatise on antiquities in the form of a tale. 



HiSTOKICAX, LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 255 

L. Lange. Romische Alterthiimer. 3 v.f Ber. Weidmann. flp8.45. 
This work, whicli is rather historical than systematic, reaches 
B.C. 30. 

W. Ramsay. Manual of Roman Antiquities. L. GrifBn. lo.OO. 
Excellent when written, but now antiquated in many parts. 

J. R. Sedey. First Book of Livy. Macm. |1.50. 

The introduction to this work contains the best discussion in 
English of the institutions of the period of the kings. 

F. W. Newman. Regal Rome. N.Y. Redfield. 1852. 63 cents. 
Contains much interesting matter. 

R. F. Leifjhton. Histoiy of Rome. N.Y. Clark & Maynard. $1.44. 
A school history, but contains the most complete statement in 
English of the latest results of scholarship. 

W. T. Arnold. The Roman System of Provincial Administration. 
Macm. #1.75. 



V. Rydherg. Roman Days. |2.00. 

Art and life under the empire. 
Wm. Forsyth. Life of Cicero. Scr. ,f2.50. 

A good work; even better is that by 
X Anthony Trollope. 2 v. II. $3.50. 

It is distinguished for vivid and correct portraiture. Its view Is 

favorable to Cicero. 

/. .1. Froude. Ca?sar. Scr. $2.50. 

Brilliant, l)ut not always accurate. It presents the most eulo- 
gistic view of CcBsar's character and career. The same view is 
presented in the Life of -Juliiis Ctesar ascribed to the Emperor 
Napoleon III. [2 v. Scr.] 

E. S. Beeshj. Catiline, Clodius, and Tiberius. L. C. & H. $2.00. 

Able and interesting, by a distinguished positivist, in defence of 
these three characters. Tiberius also finds a defender in 

F. Huideloper. Judaism in Rome. [Note G.] N.Y. Francis. 

$2.25. 

Thos. De Quincey. The Caesars. Houghton. $1.50. 

An entertaining sketch. 
Earl Stanhope. Life of Belisarius. L. $3.50. 



25G IIISTOKKJAL LITERATUBE AND AUTHOEITIES. 

Montesquieu's Grandeur and Decadence of the Romans, translated 
by Jehu Baker. App. $2.00. 
An old work of much vahie. 

See article by Goldwin Smith in Cont. Rev., May, 1878, on the 
Greatness of the Romans. 



Autliorities. 

Translations of the classic authors may be found in Bohn's Classical 
Library, republished by Harper ; besides these, we "will mention 

Herodotus, — Oriental history, and the Persian wars, — translated 
by Geo. Rawlinson. 4 v. $10.00. 

Thucydides, — Peloponnesian War, — translated by B. Jowett. 
Macm. $8.00. 

Xenophon, — continuation of Thucydides, and expedition of Cyi'us 
the Younger. $2.00. 

Livy, — Roman history, — [to 390] translated by Geo. Baker. N.Y. 
Worthington. $7.50. 
Finely illustrated. 

Polyhius, — the chief authority for the Second Punic War, — trans- 
lated by Hampton. 

Sallust, — Jugurthine War and Conspiracy of Catiline, — translated 
by A. W. Pollard. Macm. $1.60. 

Ccesar, — civil and foreign wars, from b.c. 58 to 45. $2.00. 

Tacitus, — the Roman empire, a.d. 14 to 70, with some interrup- 
tions, — translated by Church and Brodribb. Macm. $2.00. 

Suetonius, — lives of the Cajsars, — translated by Thomson. $1.75. 

Plutarch, — biographies, — translated by A. II. Clough. L. & B. 
$3.00. 

Josephus, — Jewish wars. $2.00. 



HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 257 



9. Medieval and Modern PIistory. 

tH. Hallam. Middle Ages. 3 v. N.Y. 85.25. 

A sound and scholarly work, incomplete in certain parts {e.g., 
the north of Europe), and superseded in others by recent in- 
vestigations, but still indispensable. 

XF. Guizot. Lectui-es on the History of Civilization in France and 
in Europe. 4 v. App. i$5.60. 

Likewise indispensable, and still containing the best view in 
English of feudal society. 

/. Balmes. European Civilization. f Baltimore. Mm-phy. |3.00. 
A comparison of Protestantism and Catholicism ia their rela- 
tion to ci\"ilization, by a Catholic writer. 

F. Ozanam. History of Civilization in the Fifth Centiiry.f Lip. 
$3.50. 

A work of eloquence and spiritual jpower. 

C. J. Stille. Studies in Medieval History. Lip. !^2.00. 

Aq excellent course of lectures ; especially good in the history 
of civilization, less satisfactory in that of institutions. 

XA. M. Curteis. History of the Roman Empire. Lip. $1.50. 

From A.D. 395 to 800; with good maps. The best brief sketch 
of this period. 

XR. W. Church. The Beginnings of the Middle Ages. [E.S.] $1.00. 

Covers a somewhat later period; from a.d. 500 to 1000. 
P. Lacroix. Manners, Customs, and Dress m the Middle Ages.f App. 

$12.00. 
Fd. The Arts in the Middle Ages.f App. $12.00. 

Id. Science and Literature in the Middle Ages.f L. Bickers. $12.00. 

Finely illustrated works, of the highest value. 
E. L. Cutis. Scenes and Characters in the Middle Ages. L. Vktue. 

$5.00. 

With good illustrations of manners, customs, etc. 

J. J. Sheppard. The Fall of Rome and the Rise of the New 

NationaUties. N.Y. $2.50. 

A good manual for students. 
XE. A. Freeman. Historical Essays. Series 1 and 3. Macm. $3.00. 

Series 1 treats of mediaeval history ; Series 3, of Eastern Europe. 



258 HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 

V. Jiydberg. Magic of the Middle Ages.f Holt. $1.75. 

XH. von Sybel. History and Literature of the Crusades.f C. & H. 

10s. Qd. 
J. F. Michaud. History of the Crusades. 4 v.f N.Y. Redfield. 

$3.75. 

Sir G. W. Cox. The Crusades. [E.S.] $1.00. 

G. Z. Gray. The Children's Crusade. Houghton. $1.50. 

Michaud's is the standard history of the crusades ; Cox's, the 
best short sketch ; Sybel's work presents the best results of 
scholarship. 

C. Mills. History of Chivalry. 2 v. Ph. Carey & Lea. $1.25. 

The standard work upon the subject. 
E. Viollet-le-duc. Annals of a Fortress.f B. $5.00. 

By a distinguished architect and historian. 

E. L. Cutis. Constantine. Soc. $1.05. 
Id. Charlemagne. Soc. $1.05. 

F. C. Woodhouse. Military Religious Orders of the Middle Ages. 
Soc. $1.05. 

Excellent books of a popular character. 
A. L. Koepijen. The World in the Middle Ages. 2 v. App. $3.00. 

A thorough and accurate geography of the middle ages, with an 

atlas. 
F. de Coulanges. Institutions Politiques de I'Ancienne France. f 
2 V. P. Hachette. $5.25. 

A brilliant but not always trustworthy descri^jtion of political 

society in the beginning of the middle ages. 



W. Smyth. Lectures upon Modern History. B. Mussey. 

XT. Arnold. Lectures on Modern History. App. $1.50. 
These courses of lectures are old, but valuable. 

T. H. Dyer. History of Modern Europe. 5 v. Bell. $22.50. 
The best work, extending from 1453 to 1871. 

C. D. Yonge. Three Centuries of Modern History. App. $2.00. 
A popular and interesting sketch. 



I 



HISTORICAL LITERATITEE AND AUTHORITIES. 259 

James White. Eighteen Christian Centuries. App. f2.00. 

An entertaining popvilar outline of history from ttie Cliristian era. 
XA. H. L. Heeren. Manual of the History of the Political System 
of Europe and its Colonies.f $1.50. 

Id. Historical Treatises.f $5.00. 

Heeren's writings are of the highest excellence. 

E. J. Payne. History of European Colonies. [Freeman's Hist. 
Series.] Holt. $i.lO. 

F. C. Schlosser. History of the Eighteenth Century. f 8 v. C. & H. 



10. Ecclesiastical History. 

%H. H. Milman. The History of Christianity from the Birth of 
Christ to the Abolition of Paganism in the Roman Empire. 
3v. N.Y. Armstrong. $5.25. 

%Id. History of Latin Christianity. 8 v. KY. Ai-mstrong. $14.00. 
The best general history of the church in the middle ages ; 
reaching the end of the pontificate of Nicholas V., 14:55. 

J.C.L.Gieseler. A Text-book of Church History.f 5 v. H. $5.25. 
The standard complete history of the church. 

/. Alzog. Manual of Universal Church History.f 3 v. Cincinnati. 
Clarke. $15.00. 

From a Catholic point of view; fair and learned. 

/. J. Ddllinger. The First Age of Christianity. 2 v. $6.00. 
Also by a Catholic of great learning and reputation. 

E. Re'nan. [Hibbert Lect., 1880.] The Influence of the Institu- 
tions, etc., of Rome upon Christianity. W. & N. $3.50. 

F. D. Maurice. Lectures on the Ecclesiastical History of the First 
and Second Centuries. IMacm. $3.50. 

J. H. Newman. Historical Sketches. 3 v. L. Pickering. $6.00. 

Chiefly connected with church history. 
R. C. Trench. Lectm-es on INIediseval Chmxh History. Scr. $3.00. 

A good popular sketch. 



260 HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 

C. Hardwick. A History of the Christian Chiirch. Middle Ages. 
Macm. 12.25. 

Id. The Reformation. Macm. $2.25. 

Excellent compendiums of handy reference. 

A. R. Pennington. Epochs of the Papacy. L. Bell. 10s. Gd. 

A book of much merit; from the point of view of the Church of 
England. 

J. F. Clarke. Events and Epochs of Religious History. Osgood. 

13.00. 
J. H. Allen. Christian History in its Three Great Periods. 3 v. R. 

$3.75. 

Academic lectures. Early Christianity ; the Middle Ages ; 
Modern Phases. 

H. C. Lea. A History of Sacerdotal Celibacy. Houghton. $3.75. 
Id. Studies in Church History [Temporal Power ; Benefit of Clergy ; 

Excommunication]. Ph. Lea. $2.75. 
Id. Superstition and Force [Wager of Law and Battle ; Ordeal ; 

Torture]. Ph. Lea. $2.50. 

Books of soimd and independent scholarship. 

T. Greemvood. Cathedra Petri. 6 v. L. Dickinson & Higham. 

$3.00. 

A political history of the Pai^aey, ending 1420. 

M. Creigliton. The Papacj^ during the Reformation. 2 v. Houghton. 
$10.00. 

The two volumes published extend from 1378 to 1464. 

Sir J. Stephen. Essays in Ecclesiastical BiogTaphy. Longm. 7s. 6(/. 

A. F. Villemain. Life of Gregory VII. f 3 v. Bentley. 2Gs. 

J. C. Morison. Life and Times of St. Bernard. Macm. $2.00. 

Baron Hiibner. Life and Times of Sixtus V.f Longm. 24s. 



The Fathers for English Readers. Soc. 10 v. Each, 75 cents. 
The Conversion of the West. Soc. 5 v. Each, CO cents. 
Two series of small works of merit. 



HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 261 

Tlie Reformation Period. 

G. P. Fisher. History of the Reformation. Scr. $3.00. 

An excellent work. 
XL. Hausser. Period of the Pteformation.f N.Y. $2.50. 

A course of lectures of high scholarship and historic insight. 
M. J. Spalding. History of tlie Protestant Reformation. Baltimore. 
Mm-phy. $3.50. 

By the Catholic archbishop of Baltimore. See also his IVIiscel- 

lanies. 2 v. 

IF. SeeboJim. History of the Protestant Revolution. [E.S.] $1.00. 
A compendium of great accuracy and value. 

J. H. Merle D' Auhigne. History of the Reformation.! 5 v. N.Y. 
Carter. $i.50. 

Ultra^Protestant in tone. 

XL. von Ptanke. History of the Popes.f 3 v. L. Bell. $3.75. 

The best history of the period of the Reformation, from a politi- 
cal point of view. 

C. Beard. [Hibbert Lect., 1883.] The Reformation of the 16th 
Century in its Relation to Modern Thought. W. & IST. 10s. M. 

J. H. Treadioell. Martui Luther and his Work. [New Plutarch.] 

Put. $1.00. 
R. B. Drummond. Erasmus, his Life and Character. 2 v. S. & E. 

D. Strauss. LTrich von Hutten.f L. Daldy. 10s. Gd. 
H. Morley. Clement Marot. 2 v. C. & H. 18s. 

K. Benrath. Bernardino Ochino of Siena.f L. Nisbet. 9s. 

R. C. Christie. Etienne Dolet. Macm. $5.00. 

These are persons whose lives illustrate some sj)ecial phase of 
the Reformation. 

P. Sarpi. History of the Council of Trent. 

Ranked by Macaulay with Thucydides. 
J.A.WijUe. History of Protestantism. 3 v. C. $15.00. 

See essays on Luther by Stephen, Carlyle, Froude, and Mozley ; also 
his Table Talk, and Erasmus' Colloquies. A life of Luther, by 
Peter Bayne, is in preparation ; also a translation of Kiistlin's 
popular work, to be published by Scribner. 



262 HISTORICAL LITERATURE A2>ID AUTHORITIES. 

For Reference. 
W. Smith. Dictionary of Christian Antiquities. 2 v. M. $7.00. 
Id. Dictionary of Christian Biography. 2 v. M. $1L00. 
P. Schaff. Religious Encyclop?edia [based on that of Herzog]. 
3 V. " N.Y. Funk & Wagnalls. $6.00. 



11. History of England, Ireland, and Scotland. 

Dacid Hume. History of England. 6 v. Lip. $6.00. 

In elegant style, with strong Tory bias ; is excellent in social 
history, hut lacks accurate scholarship. 

/. Lingard. History of England. 13 v. $20.00. 

A Catholic work, able and scholarly. This, like Hume, comes 
down only to 1G88. 

C. K7iigid. The Popular History of England. 8 v. Ph. $10.00. 

Liberal in tone, with abimdant illustrations. 
XJ. R. Green. History of the English People. 4 v. H. $10.00. 

The best history of England ; its fault is in disregarding too 

much the chronological order. 

Id. A Short History of the English People. H. $1.75. 
An earlier work of similar character. 

XJ. F. Bright. English History for the Use of Public Schools. 3 v. 
N.Y. Dutton. 17s. 

An excellent work; especially good for reference. Both Bright 
and Green have numerous maps and genealogical tables. 

/. S. Brewer. The Student's Hume. H. $1.25. 

More than an abridgment. The editor has added accuracy and 
liberality of tone. 

The Pictorial History of England. 8 v. £5. 

A work of solid merit, with numerous illustrations. 
Sir James Mackintosh. History of England. 

In Lardner's Cyclox>fEdia. 
Miss E. Thompson. History of England. Holt. [Freeman's 
Historical Series.] 80 cents. 



HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 263 

fj. H. Burton. History of Scotland. 8 v. and index. Ed. Blackwood. 
Each, 7s. M. 

The best history of Scotland. 
Miss M. Macarthur. History of Scotland. Holt. [Freeman's 

Historical Series.] 80 cents. 
E. M. Robertson. Scotland under her Early Kings. 2 v. Ed. 
Edmonston. 3Gs. 

Reaches the end of the thirteenth century. Able and scholarly, 
but confused in arrangement. 

W. F. Skene. Celtic Scotland. 3 v. Ed. Edmonston. Each, 15.?. 

The most complete work upon Scottish antiquities. 
tC. G. Walpole. The Kingdom of Ireland. H. |!1.75 

An excellent history of Ireland, with very good maps ; reaches 

1800. 

W. Dolhj. History of Ireland. N.Y. Virtue. $10.00. 

J. H. McCarthy. Outline of Irish History. Baltimore. Murphy. 
75 cents. 



XMrs. E. S. Armitage. The Childhood of the English Nation. Put. 

SBl.2.5. 

An admirable sketch; reaches 1199. 

XE. A. Freeman. Old English History. Macm. |1.50. 

The Anglo-Saxon period ; originally written for the young. 
Id. Short History of the Norman Conquest. Macm. 60 cents. 
%Id. History of the Norman Conquest. 5 v. and index. Macm. 

$20.00. 

Mr. Freeman's greatest work, and the best history of the period. 

Id. History of William Rufus. Macm. $8.00. 
A continuation of the above. 

A. Thierry. History of the Norman Conquest.f 2 v. L. Bell. 
Each, 3s. Qd. 

Brilliant, but resting upon unsound theories. 

C. Elton. Origins of English History. L. Quaritch. $8.00. 

A work of great learning and research ; embracing the Celtic 
period and the Anglo-Saxon conquest. 



264 HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 

XJ. Rhysi. Celtic Britain. Soc. 75 cents. 

By an eminent Celtic scholar. It gives a history of the Celtic 
nationalities of Britain through the eleventh century. 

XGrant Allen. Anglo-Saxon Britain. Soc. 7.5 cents. 

The author opposes Freeman's view of an exclusively Teutonic 
character of the English nationality. 

%J. R. Green. The Making of England. H. $2.50. 

Describes graphically and in detail the events of the Anglo-Saxon 
conquest and the Heptarchy. 

/. 31. Kemhle. The Saxons in England. 2 v. L. Quaritch. 24s. 

Old, but full of valuable material. 
Thos. Nicholas. Pedigree of the English People. Longm. 16s. 

Argues for a large Celtic element in the English people. 
E. Guest. Origines Celticae. 2 v. Macm. 19.00. 

An luifinished work containing papers of remarkable merit, 

especially in relation to the Anglo-Saxon conquest. 

J. M. Lappenberg. History of England nnder the Anglo-Saxon 
Kings. 2 V. L. Bell. Each, 3s. Qd. 

Id. History of England under the Norman Kings. 15s. 

Scholarly works, but partly superseded by later writers. 

W. Longman. Lectures on the Early History of England. Longm. 

1.5s. 
C. H. Pearson. England during the Early and Middle Ages. 2 v. 
L. Bell. 14s. 

Reaches death of Edward I.; of great value in political and 

constitutional history. 
Id. Historical Maps of England. L. Bell. £1 lis. M. 

Illustrates especially the social and political condition of the 

middle ages. Contains material not to be found elsewhere. 
W. H. Blaauw. The Barons' War. L. Bell. 10s. 6d. 

An excellent monograph on the times of Montfort. 
Greatest of all the Plantagenets. L. Bentley. 12s. 

A history of Edward I.; very eulogistic, but on the whole sound. 
X W. Longman. History of the Life and Times of Edward III. 2 v. 
Longm. 28s. 

The most important work for the history of England in the 

fourteenth century. 



HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 265 

X C. H. Pearson. English History in the Fourteenth Century. L. 
Rivingtons. 3s. 6c/. 

An excellent short history. 

G. M. Towle. History of Henry V. App. $2.50. 

Miss C. A. Halsted. Richard III. Ph. Carey. 
An attempt to vindicate his character. 

Jas. Gairdner. Life and Reign of Richard the Third. Longm. 
10s. Qd. 

Sustains the traditionary view. 

%J. A. Froude. History of England from the Fall of Wolsey to the 
Death of Elizabeth. 12 v. Scr. $18.00. 

Reaches only 1688. A fascinating narration, friendly to Henry 
VIIL; deficient in judicial qualities. 

Miss Lucy Aikin. INIemoirs of the Coiu't of Queen Elizabeth. 
Longm. 3s. Qd. 

An old but valuable book. 

%L. von Ranke. History of England.f 6 v. Macm. $16.00. 

A work of the highest value and importance ; embraces the 
sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries. 

XS. R. Gardiner. History of England : 1. From the accession of 
James I. to the disgrace of Coke, 2 vols. ; 2. The Spanish 
marriage ; 3. Under the Duke of Buckingham and Charles I., 
2 vols. ; 4. Personal government of Charles I., 2 vols. ; 5. Fall 
of the Monarchy of Charles I., 2 vols. Longm. Each, 12s. 

Mr. Gardiner is the highest authority upon this period. A new 
and cheaper edition of the combined work is now publishing. 

Earl of Clarendon. History of the Rebellion. 6 v. Ox. £1 2s. 
The author, as Sir Edward Hyde, was a leading actor in the 
events. 

XB. M. Cordery and J. S. Phillpotts. King and Commonwealth. 
Ph. Porter & Coates. $1.75. 

An excellent sketch ; from 1003 to 1660. 

F. Guizot. 1. History of the English Revolution of 1640; 
2. England under Oliver Cromwell, 2 v. ; 3. Under Richard 
Cromwell, 2 v. ; 4. History of Monk.f L. Per vol., 3s. Qd. 



266 HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 

A. Bisset. History of the Struggle for Parliamentary Government 
in England. 2 v. 24s. 

Id. History of the Commonwealth of England from the Death of 
Charles I. to the Expulsion of the Long Parliament by Crom- 
well. 2 V. 30s. 

An able exposition of the parliamentary side. 

/. Forster. The Arrest of the Five Members by Charles I. M. 12s. 

Id. The Grand Remonstrance. M. 12s. 

JF. V071 Raumer. The Political History of England during the 16th, 
17th, and 18th Centuries. 2 v.f £1 10s. 
By a distinguished German historian. 

XT. B. Macaulay. History of England. 5 v. H. $2.50. 

Strongly Whig ; a brilliant work ; unfinished ; covers the reigns 
of James II. and William III., with a general sketch of that of 
Charles H. 

XSir James Mackintosh. History of the Revolution of 1688. 

An able work ; also Whig. Unfinished. 
C. J. Fox. History of James 11. Scr. 11.2.5. 

J. H. Burton. History of the Reign of Queen Anne. 3 v. Scr. 
$13.50. 

Whig; by the author of the history of Scotland. 
Earl Stanhope. History of the Reign of Queen Anne. 2 v. M. 10s. 
Id. History of England from the Peace of Utrecht to the Peace of 
Versailles [1713 to 1783]. 7 v. M. 

These two works give the history of the eighteenth century from 
a Tory point of view. 

% W. E. H. Lecky. History of England in the 18th Century. 4 v. 
App. $0.00. 

Not yet finished ; from a Whig point of view. 
/. Ashton. Social Life in the Reign of Queen Anne. Scr. $9.00. 

Graphic and accurate. 

J. A. Froude. The English in Ireland in the 18th Century, 3 v. Scr. 

$3.00. 

Written with a strong English bias. 

/. Adolphiis. A History of England from the Accession of George 

III. to 1803. 7 V. Each, 14s. 



HISTOEICAL LlTERATtTRE AND AUTHORITIES. 267 

W. Massey. A History of England during the Reign of George the 
Third. 4 v. Each, 6s. 

Massey is Whig ; Adolphus, Tory. 

Miss H. Martineau. History of the Peace [to 1854]. 4 v. B. 
Walker. $10.00. 

S. Walpole. History of England from the Conclusion of the Great 
War in 1815 to 1841. 3 v. Longm. £2 14s. 

W. N. Molesworth. History of England from 1830 to 1874. 3 v. 
C. & H. 16.00. 

XJ. McCarthy. History of Our Own Times. 2 v. H. $2.50. 

H. M. Hozier. Invasions of England. 2 v. Macm. $8.00. 

XS. R. Gardiner. Introduction to English History. [In English 
History for Students.] N.Y. Holt. 80 cents. 

R. Pauli. Pictures of Old England.f Macm. 6s. 
Belonging to mediaeval history. 

Miss C. M. Yonge. Cameos from English History. Macm. .f 5.00. 
Four series, covering mediasval history. 

J. Gairdner and J. Spedding. Studies in English History. Ed. 
Douglas. 12s. 

Belonging to the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries. 

A. C. Etoald. Stories from the State Papers. Houghton. $3.00. 
Belonging to the same period. 

T. B. Macaulay. Essays. 4 v. Houghton. $5.00. 

Devoted chiefly to modern English liistory. 
/. S. Brewer. English Studies. M. 14s. 

XJ. E. T. Rogers. History of Agriculture and Prices. 4 v. Macm. 
$23.00. 

Covers the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries. 

F. Seebohm. The English Village Community. Longm. 

W. Cunningham. Growth of English Industry and Commerce. C. 

$3.00. 
C. Hole. Genealogical Stemma of the Kings of England and 

France. Macm. Is. 



268 HISTORIC Al, LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 

XEpochs of Modern History. Scr. 
W. Stubbs. The Early Plantagenets. $1.00. 
W. Warburton. Edward III. $1.00. 
J. Gairdner. The Houses of Lancaster and Yort. $1.00. 
M. CreigUon. The Age of Elizabeth. $1.00. 
S. R. Gardiner. The Puritan Revolution. $1.00. 
E. Hale. The FaU of the Stuarts. $1.00. 

E. E. Morris. The Age of Anne. $1.00. 

J. McCarthy. Epoch of Reform. 1830-1850. $1.00. 

Epochs of English History. E. & L. 50 cents each. 

F. York-Poioell. Early England [to 1066]. 

L. Creighton. England a Continental Power [to 1066]. 

J. Roioley. The Rise of the People and the Growth of Parliament 

[to 1485]. 
M. Creighton. The Tudors and the Reformation [to 1603]. 

B. M. Gardiner. The Struggle agamst Absolute Monarchy [to 

1688]. 
J. Roivley. The Settlement of the Constitution [to 1778]. 
O. W. Tancock. England during the American and European 

Wars [to 1820]. 
T. Arnold. Modern England [to 1875]. 

Biographies. 
t Alfred the Great. By R. Pauli.-\ Scr. $2.00. 
Id. By Thomas Hughes. [Sunday Library.] Macm. $1.75. 
St. Anselm. By R. W. Church. [Sunday Library.] Macm. $1.75. 
Id. By M. Rule. [Catholic] 2 v. L. Paul. 32s. 
Becket. Articles by /. A. Froude, Nineteenth Century, 1877. 

Id. By E. A. Freeman [in reply; more favorable], Cont. Rev., 

1878. 
Richard Coeur de Lion. By G. P. R. Jam.es. 2 v. Scr. $2.80. 



HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 269 

JSimon de Montfort. By R. Pauli.] L. Triibner. Gs. 

Id. By G. W. Prothero. [More a history than biography.] Longm. 

9s. 
JWyclif . By G. Lechler.j 2 v. L. Paul. 21s. 
Lives of English Popular Leaders. By C. E. Maurice. 1. Stephen 

Laugton ; 2. Tyler, Ball, Oldcastle. L. King. Each, 7s. Qd. 
Historical Gleanings. By /. E. T. Rogers. 1. Walpole, Adam 

Smith; 2. Wyclif, Laud, Wilkes, Home Tooke. Macm. 1st, 

!^1.50; 2d, 11.75. 
Whittington. By W. Besant and J. Rice. [New Plutarch.] Put. 

81.00. 
Sir Walter Raleigh. By E. Edwards. 2 v. Macm. |9.00 
JBacon. Py J. Spedding. 2 v. Houghton. $5.00. 

For the Period of the English Revolution. 
Strafford. By Miss E. Cooper. 2 v. L. Tinsley. 30s. 
Eliot. By /. Forster. 2 v. C. & H. 14s. 
JCromwell. By Thos. Carlyle. [Letters and Speeches.] 5 v. Scr. 

$18.00. 
Jld. By J. A. Picton. C. |2.50. 

Id. By Paxton Hood. N.Y. Fimk & Wagnalls. $1.00. 
/. B. Mozley. Essays. [Strafford, Laud, Cromwell.] 2 v. L. 24.s-. 
Three English Statesmen. By G. Smith. [Pym, Cromwell.] H. 

$1.50. 
Statesmen of the Connnonwealth. By /. Forster. $2.25. 
Chief Actors in the Puritan Revolution By P. Bai/ne. L. Clarke. 

12s. 
fMilton. By D. Masson. 6 v. Macm. $34.00. 
Contains a minute history of the times. 



W. Carstares. By R. H. Story. Macm. $3.00. 

A prominent actor in the Scotch union. 
Marlborough. By W. Coxe. 3 v. L. Bell. Each, 3s. 6d. 



270 HISTORICAL LITERATURE Al^D AUTHORITIES. 

Sir R. Walpole. By ^. C. Ewald. C. & H. 18s. 

C. E. Stuart. By ^. C. Ewald. 2 v. C. & H. £1 18s. 

Lord Shelburne. By Lord E. Fitzmaurice. 3 v. Macm. 16s. 

fC. J. Fox. By G. 0. Trevelyan. H. ,f2.50. 

t William Pitt. By Earl Stanhope. H. |2.50. 

Id. By Goldwin Smith. [Three English Statesmen.] H, |1.50. 



Lord Camphell. Lives of the Chief Justices. 4 v. L. & B. |7.00. 

/(/. Lives of the Chancellors. 10 v. L. & B. <|17.50. 

Mrs. A. Strickland. Lives of the Queens of England. 6 v. Lip. 

$12.00. 
A. C.Eioald. Representative Statesmen. [Strafford to Palmerston.] 

2 V. C. & H. £1 4s. 

C. A. Sainte-Beuve. English Portraits.f Holt. |2.00. 

D. O. Maddyn. Chiefs of Parties. [Fox, Pitt, etc.] 21s. 

History of Religion. 

XR. W. Dixon. History of the Church of England. 2 v. Rout- 
ledge. Each, IQs. 

The most thorough and important work ; not yet completed. 
XJ. H. Blunt. The Reformation of the Church of England. 2 v. 
N.Y. Young. $8.50. 

The best complete history ; extends from 1514 to 1GG2. From the 
point of view of the Church of England. 
/. /. Blunt. Sketch of the Reformation in England. Young. $1.50. 

An excellent short sketch. 
Cunningham Geikie. The English Reformation : How it came 
about, and why we should uphold it. App. $2.00. 
A popular and rather one-sided work. 
W. Cohhett. History of the Protestant Reformation in England 
and Ii-eland. N.Y. Sadlier. 75 cents. 

A violent attack upon the English Reformation, by a nominal 
Protestant. For the Catholic view, see Lingard and Spalding. 

F. Seebohm. The Oxford Reformers. Longm. 14s. 
Diocesan Histories [Canterbury, Durham, etc.]. Soc. 



HISTORICAL, LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 271 

Constitutional History. 

XW. Stuhhs. Constitutional History of England. 3 v. Macm. -f7.80. 

XH. Ilallam. Constitiitional History of England. 3 v. N.Y. Arm- 
strong. $5.25. 

X T. E. May. Constitutional Plistory of England. 2 v. N. Y. Ann- 
strong. $2.50. 

These three works form a connected series, Hallam heginning 
1485, where Stubbs ends, and ending 17G0, where May begins. 

Sheldon Amos. Fifty Years of the English Constitution. L. & B. 

T. P. Taswell-Langmead. Constitutional History of England. $7.50. 

The best compendium of the subject. 
P. V. Smith. Histoiy of English Institutions. Lip. fl.50. 

A good short work, with a peculiar arrangement. 
E. A. Freeman. Growth of the English Constitution. Macm. $2.00. 

H. Adams [and others]. Essays in Anglo-Saxon Law. L. & B. 

$4.00. 
M. M. Bigelow. History of Anglo-Norman Procedure. L. & B. 

$5.00. 
Sir Jas. Stephen. History of the Criminal Law of England. 3 v. 

Macm. 



See also the following articles : by /. E. T. Rogers, on The Black 
Death, Fortn. Ilev., 1866 ; the Peasants' War, id. ; History of 
Rent in England, Cont. Rev., April, 1880 ; by F. Seebohm, on 
The Black Death, Fortn. Rev., 1865-66 ; by Grant Allen, Are we 
English? in Fortn. Rev., Oct., 1880 [presenting Celtic argu- 
ment] ; by F. Harrison, on Law of Treason, in Fortn. Rev., 
Sept., 1882 ; by Goldwin Smith, on the Greatness of England, in 
Cont. Rev., Dec, 1878; by F. Seebohm, Historical Claims of 
Tenant Rights, in 19th Cent., Jan., 1881 ; also on Land Tenures 
in England and in Ireland, in Fort. Rev., 1870 ; by R. D. Osborn, 
Another Side of a Popular Story [India], in Fort. Rev., Aug., 
1882. 



272 HISTORICAL LITEKATUKE AND AUTHOKITIES. 

Authorities. 

XJ. Bass Mullinger. Authorities [in English History for Students]. 
N.Y. Holt. $1.80. 

A compendious view of the principal authorities. 

XC. K. Adams. Questions and Notes on English Constitutional 
History. Ann Arbor. Sheehan. 

A complete and accurate guide to the authorities. A less full 
guide will be found in Prof. Short's Reference Lists, referred to 
elsewhere. 

Jas. Gairdner. Early Chroniclers of Europe. England. Soc. $1.20. 

An interesting account of the English chronicles. Translations 
of most of the chronicles will be found in Bohn's Library. Bell. 

Froissart's Chronicles [fourteenth centui-y]. N.Y. Leavitt & Allen. 
112.00. 

J. E. T. Rogers. Loci e libro veritatis. Macm. $2.75. 

Belongs to the fifteenth century. 
Id. The Paston Letters. 4 v. L. Arber. 

A collection of family letters, of the time of the War of the 

Roses. 

D'Ewes' Autobiography and Correspondence. 2 v. L. Bentley. 

£18s. 
The Fau-fax Correspondence. 4 v. L. Bentley. £3. 

S. Pepys. Diary and Correspondence. Scr. $2.00. 

/. Evelyn, Diary and Correspondence. Scr. $1.75. 

These two works present a vivid picture of society in the last 
half of the seventeenth century. 

H. Walpole. Letters. 9 v. Scr. $33.75. 

Full of information for the middle of the eighteenth century. 

Cobbett's Parliamentary History, continued in Hansard's Parliar 

nientary Debates. 
Rymer's Foedera [collection of treaties]. 
The publications of the Master of the Rolls. 
The publications of the Camden Society, and similar societies. 



HISTORICAL LITERATUKE AND AUTHOKITIES. 273 

12. History of France. 

tF. Guizot. History of France.f 8 v. $40.00. 

Handsomely illustrated. The best large history of France in 
English. 

XG. W. KitcUn. History of France. 3 v. Macm. 17.80. 

The best English work. 
H. W. Jervis. Student's History of France. H. $1.25. 

An excellent small work, with instructive illustrations. 
J. Michelet. History of France. 2 v.f App. $4.00. 

Very learned, and very brilliant, but too abounding in theory. 
F. Guizot and G. Masson. Concise History of France.f E. & L. 
$3.00. 

IP. Lacombe. The Growth of a People.f Holt. $1.00. 

An admirable work, descriptive of the development of the nation. 
Parke Godivin. History of France. Vol. I. H. $3.00. 

An excellent history of the period before Charlemagne. No 

other volumes were published. 

H. Martin. History of France (during the reigns of Louis XIV. 

and Louis XV.). 3 v.f B. E. & L. $16.-50. 

Martin's is considered the best history of France. 
Sir Jas. Stephen. Lectures on the History of France. H. $3.00. 

An admirable commentary upon French history. 
Miss C. M. Yonge. History of France. [Freeman's Hist. Series.] 

Holt. 80 cents. 
F. Guizot. St. Louis and Calvin. [Sunday Library.] Macm. 
D. F. Jamison. Life and Times of Bertrand du Guesclin. 2 v. 

Lip. $14.00. 
Janet Tuckey. Joan of Arc. Put. [New Plutarch.] $1.00. 
Harriet Parr. Life and Death of Jeanne d'Arc. 2 v. S. & E. Qs. 
T. Willert. The Reign of Louis the Eleventh. Put. $1..50. 
XH. M. Baird. History of the Rise of the Huguenots. 2 v. Scr. 

$5.00. 

The best history of the subject. 

W. Besant. Coligny and the Failure of the French Reforma.tioQ. 

[New Plutarch.] Put. 



274 HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 

Due (VAumale. History of the Princes of the House of Conde.f 2 v. 

L. Bentley. 30s. 
L. Ranke. Civil Wars and Monarchy in France.f H. $1.50. 

Lady Jackson. The Old Regime. Holt. $2.25. 

A vivid picture of society under Louis XV. 
Due de Broglie. The King's Secret (Louis XV.).t 2 v. C. $5.00. 

Has special reference to Polish aifairs. 
G. Masson. Early Chroniclers of Europe. France. Soc. $1.20. 

Memoirs of Commines (Louis XL), Sully (Henry IV.), and others. 

Revolutionary Period, etc. 

A. Young. Travels in France during the Years 1787-89. 2 v. 

Tlie best contemporary picture of tlie condition of France before 
the Revolution. 

A. de Tocqueville. The Ancient Regime.f H. $1..50. 

An analysis of the political condition of France at the same time. 
C. D. Yonge. Life of Marie Antoinette. H. $2.50. 

A popular work. 
H. Vizetelly. Story of the Diamond Necklace. Scr. $2.25. 

A vivid picture of society under the Old Regime. See also 

Carlyle's essay upon the same subject. 

C. K. Adams. Democracy and Monarchy in France. Holt. $2.50. 

An excellent sketch of recent French history. 
H. A. Taine. The Ancient Regime.f Holt. $2.50. 
Id. The French Revolution. 2 v.f Holt. $5.00. 

Not so much history as commentary ; very unfavorable to the 

revolutionists. 

%H. V. Syhel. History of the French Revolution. 4 v.f M. 48s. 

The best and most important history. 
T. Carlyle. Plistory of the French Revolution. 3 v. Scr. $2.40. 

Remarkable for graphic power. 
Edmund Burke. Reflections on the French Revolution. 

A bitter attack upon the revolution while still iu progress ; 

replied to by — 
Sir Jas. Mackintosh. Vindiciae Gallicae. 



HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 275 

A. Thiers. The French Revolution.f 4 v. App. |8.00. 

Id. The Consulate and Empii-e.f 5 v. Claxton. |12.50. 

Thiers' works are written from an intensely French point of 
view. His excessive laudation may be balanced by — 

Si7- A. Alison. History of Eiu'ope from 1789 to 1815. 8 v. H. 

$16.00. 

Strongly Tory. 

tP. Lanfrey. History of Napoleon I. 4 v.f Macm. $12.50. 

An incomplete work. Impartial in tone, but severe in judgment. 
See also Channing's article on Napoleon Bonaparte. 

W. Hazlitt. Life of Napoleon Bonaparte. 3 v. Lip. $4.50. 

Perhaps the best English work favorable to Napoleon. 
H.VanLaun. The French Revolutionary Epoch. 2 v. App. $3.. 50. 

Comes down to 1870, but is much fullest in the earlier parts. 
C. A. Fyffe. History of Eui-ope (beginning 1879). 2 v. Holt. 
Vol. I., $2.50. 

XMrs. B. M. Gardiner. French Revolution. [E.S.] E. & L. $1.00. 

Presents the results of the latest scholarship. 
W. 0. Morris. The French Revolution and First Empire. [E.S.] 
Scr. $1.00. 

Valuable for an admirable bibliography by Hon. A. D. White. 

J. Wilson. Studies of Modern Mind and Character. Longm. 20s. 

Contains some excellent essays on French revolutionary history. 

W. F. P. Napier. History of the War m the Peninsula. 5 v. N.Y. 

Armstrong. $7.50. 

Earl StanTiope. The French Retreat from Moscow. M. 7s. 6rf. 

This volume contains other valuable historical essays. 
C. Adams. Great Campaigns [1796-1820]. Ed. Blackwood. 6s. 
C. C. Chesney. Waterloo Lectures. Longm. 10s. 6c?. 

Dorsey Gardner. Quatre-Bras, Ligny, and Waterloo. Houghton. 
$5.00. 

The best popular history of this campaign. 

Zouis Blanc. History of Ten Years. 1830-40. L. £1 Os. 

By a radical republican. 
A. de Lamartine. History of the Revolution of 1848. Scr. $1.40. 

Lamartine was at the head of the provisional government. 



276 HISTOEICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 

Memoirs of Mad. de Remusat.f (1802-8.) App. #2.00. 

A graphic picture of the court of Napoleon, by one of Josephine's 
maids of lionor. 

Correspondence of Prince Talleyrand and Louis XVIII. (1814-15.) 
Scr. $1.00. 

Especially in relation to the Congress of Vienna. 



13. Special Histories, 

X The following series of works (Lip.) form a connecting link 
between mediaival and modern history : — 

/. F. Kirk. History of Charles the Bold. 3 v. Lip. #9.00. 

W. H. Prescott. History of Ferdinand and Isabella. 3 v. Lip. #4.50. 

W. Robertson. History of Charles V. 3 v. [Edited by Prescott.] 

#4.50. 
W. H. Prescott. History of Philip II. 3 v. [Unfinished.] #4.50. 

X The following works (H.) form a good continuation : — 

J. L. Motleij. Rise of the Dutch Republic. 3 v. H. #6.00. 
Id. History of the United Netherlands. 4 v. H. #8.00. 
Id. John of Olden-Barneveldt. 2 v. H. #4.00. 



J. Van Praet. Essays on the Political History of the 15th, 16th, 
and 17th Centuries. L. Bentley. 

W. Menzel. History of Germany.f 3 v. L. Bell. #4.20. 

The best large work in English. 
/. Sime. History of Germany. [Freeman's Hist. Series.] 80 cents. 
Bayard Taylor. History of Germany. H. #1.75. 

C. T. Lewis. History of Germany. H. #1.50. 

Both these short histories are based upon that of Miiller. 
X W. Coxe. History of House of Austria. 3 v. Bohn. 

A book of great accuracy and value. 
T. L. Kinffton-Oliphant. History of Frederic II. 2 v. Macm. 

A valuable contribution to the history of the thirteenth century. 



HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 277 

T. Carlyle. History of Frederick the Great. 6 v. H. .|7.50. 

A work of great industry, but in Carlyle's worst style, and 
unduly laudatory. 

Due de Broglie. Frederic the Great and Maria Theresa.f L. Low. 

30s. 

In the time of the First Silesian War, 1740-42. 



W. Spalding. Hist, of Italy and the Italian Islands. 3 v. H. $2.25. 

A good comjjendium ; more recent is — 
W. Hunt. History of Italy. [Freeman's Hist. Series.] Holt. 80 cts. 

J. C. L. de Sismondi. History of the Italian Republics. H. 75 cts. 
An abridgment of the author's large work. 

XJ. A. Symonds. Age of the Despots. Holt. $3.50. 

The best history of Italy in the last century of the middle ages. 
With " The Revival of Learning " and " The Fine Arts " it forms 
a series entitled " The Renaissance in Italy." 

T. A . Trollops. History of the Commonwealth of Florence. 4 v. 
Macm. $10.00. 

Mrs. Oliphant. The Makers of Florence. Macm. $3.00. 

Sketches of Florentine history in the close of the middle ages. 
Id. Francis of Assisi. [Sunday Library.] Macm. $1.75. 

R.W. Church. Dante. ' Macm. $1.75. 

Contains a translation of the treatise " De Monarchia." 

A. V. Reumont. Lorenzo de' iNIedici.f 2 v. S. & E. 30s. 
A scholarly work, superseding that of Roscoe. 

P. Villari. Niccolo Machiavelli and his Times. 2 v.f L. Paul. 24s. 

An important contribution to the history of the 15th century. 
W. R. Clark. Savonarola. Soc. 3s. Qd. 
J. Burckhardt. The Civilization of the Period of the Renaissance 

in Italy.f 2 v. Dodd. $7.50. 
P. Colletta. History of Naples. 2 v. Ed. Edmonston. 24s. 
W. C. Hazlitt. History of the Venetian Republic. 2 v. L. 28s. 

/. T. Bent. Genoa. L. Paul. 18s. 

An interesting work, but badly arranged. 



278 HISTORICAL LITEKATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 

J. A. Wylie. History of the Waldenses. C. |1.25. 

A good popular work. 
J. Bigeloio. Molinos the Quietist. Scr. |1.25. 

Episode of religious history in the seventeenth century. 
Count Balzani. Early Chroniclers of Euxope. Italy. See. $1.20. 



S. A. Dunliam. History of Spain and Portugal. 5 v. H. .f3.75. 

An old but good work. 
J. A. Harrison. Spain. B. Lothrop. fl.50. 

Excellent in parts, but of unequal merit. 
%H. Coppee. History of the Conquest of Spain by the Arab-Moors. 
2 V. L. & B. 15.00. 

An excellent history of Spain during the middle ages. 
Miss C. M. Yonge. Christians and IMoors in Spain. Macm. $1.25. 

A sketch of a popular character. 
/. A. Conde. History of the Arabs in Spain. 3 v. Bohn. .|4.20. 

An old standard work, but of little value. 
Life of Saint Teresa. Macm. $2.00. 



E. C. Ottc. Scandinavian History. Macm. $1.50. 

The best work ; another is — 
P. C. Binding. History of Scandinavia. Pittsburgh. Haven. $3.50. 
XE. G. Geijer. History of Sweden. L. Whittaker. Vol. I., 8s. Qd. 
T. Carlyle. Early Kings of Norway. H. $1.25. 

Voltaire. History of Charles Xll.f Houghton. $2.25. 

With many inaccuracies in detail, a book of positive historical 
merit. 



XA.Rambaud. History of Russia.f 2 v. E. & L. $11.00. 

A work of the highest merit. 
W. R. S. Ralston. Early Russian History. L. 5s. 

Four lectures of great value. 
Frances A. Shaw. Brief History of Riissia. O. 50 cents. 
S. A. Dunham. History of Poland. L. 3s. Gd. 



HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 279 

Jas. Fletcher. History of Poland. H. 75 cents. , 

Hungary and its Revolutions [with life of Kossuth]. Bohn. $1.40. 

H. Zschokke. History of Switzerland.f Armstrong. $1.50. 

Harriet D. S. Mackenzie. History of Switzerland. B. Lothrop. 

$1.50. 
T. C. Grattan. History of the Netherlands. H. .fl.OO. 
C. M. Davies. History of Holland. 3 v. L. Willis. 36s. 

/. Geddes. Administration of John De Witt. Vol. 1. H. $2.50. 
The period of the invasion of Holland by Louis XIV. 



%G. Finlay. History of Greece, from its Conquest by the Romans 
(B.C. 146) to the Present Thne (1864). 7 v. Macm. $17.50. 
A work of the highest merit and authority. 

L. Sergeant. New Greece. C. $3.50. 

Sir E. Creasy. History of the Ottoman Turks. Holt. $2.50. 

E. A, Freeman. The Ottoman Power in Euroj)e. Macm. $2.00. 
Freeman's view is less friendly than that of Creasy. 

/. Blocliwitz. Brief History of Tiu'key. O. 50 cents. 

There is a history of the Turks in Vol. H. of /. H. Newman's 
Historical Sketches. 



tSir W. Muir. Life of Mahomet. S. & E. 14s. 

Id. Annals of the Early Caliphate. S. & E. 16s. 

W. Irving. Mahomet and his Successors. 2 v. Put. $2.00. 

XR. Bosworth Smith. Mohammed and Mohammedism. 

E. A. Freeman. History of the Saracens. Macm. $1.50. 

A book of merit, bvit old. 
S. Ockley. History of the Saracens. Bohn. $1.40. 

A fascinating narrative. 
R. D. Osborn. Islam under the Arabs. Longm. 12s. 
Id. Islam under the Caliphs of Bagdad. Seeley. 10s. Gd. 



280 HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 

E. H. Palmer. Haroun al Raschid. [New Plutarch.] Put. $1.00. 
A. Crighton. History of Arabia. 2 v. H. |1.50. 



James Mill. History of British India. 9 v. £2 I65. 
The standard work. Excellent short ones are — 
X W. W. Hunter. Short History of India. $6.40. 
XJ. T. Wheeler. Short History of India. Macm. $3.50. 
L. J. Trotter. History of India. Soc. 10s. 6c?. 
R. G. Watson. History of Persia. S. & E. 15s. 
H. H. Howorth. History of the Mongols from the Ninth to the 

Nineteenth Century. 3 v. $28.00. 
D. C. Boulger. History of China. 2 v. L. Allen. $14.40. 



14. Nineteenth Century. 

R. Mackenzie. The Nineteenth Century. L. Nelson. $1.00. 

An excellent general sketch. 
Memoirs of Prince Metternich. (1773-lS15.)t 2 v. Scr. $5.00. 

Valuable in the diplomatic history of the time. 
Sir A. Alison. History of Europe from 1815. 4 v. H. $8.00. 

A work of great literary merit, written with a strong Tory bias. 
Memoirs of Baron Stockmar. 2 v. L. & S. $5.00. 

Baron Stockmar was a leading adviser of Prince Albert. 
Cardinal Wiseman. The Last Four Popes. [Pius VII., Leo XIL, 

Pius VIII., Gregory XVI.] L. Hurst & Blackett. 5s. 
G. S. Godkin. Life of Victor Emmanuel II., First King of Italy. 
$2.00. 

N. W. Senior. Journals Kept in France and Italy. 2 v. L. Paul. 
24s. 

Mr. Senior's journals and letters are full of intelligent and in- 
structive observations upon current history. 



HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 281 

L. V. Kossuth. Memoirs of My Exile. Aj)p. $2.00. 

Francis Deak : an Hungarian Statesman. Macm. |3.00. 

Chas. de Mazade. Cavour. Tut. $3.00. 

XJ. R. Seeleij. Life of Stein. 2 v. R. $7.50. 

Id. Life of E. M. Arndt. R. $2.25. 

Id. Lectures and Essays. Macm. 10s. 6c/. 

Jos. Mazzini : His Life and Writings. Houghton. $1.75. 

/. G. L. Hezekiel. Prince Bismarck. Fords. $3.50. 

/. Klaczko. Two Chancellors. [Bismarck and Gortschakoff.] 
Houghton. $2.00. 

W. BcKjehot. Biographical Studies. Longm. 12s. 

Lord Stratford de Redclijfe. The Eastern Question. M. 9s. 

A. W. Kinglake. The Invasion of the Crimea [1854]. 4 v. H. 

$8.00. 

H. M. Hozier. The Seven Weeks' War. [1866.] Macm. $2.00. 

A. Borhstaedt and F. Dwyer. The Fi-anco-German War [1870]. 
L. Asher. 21s. 

A military history; popular illustrated works are — 
Edmimd Oilier. The Franco-German War. 2 v. C. $7.50. 
Id. The Russo-Turkish War. 2 v. C. $8.00. 

F. V. Greene. The Russian Army and its Campaigns in Turkey 
in 1877-78. App. $6.00. 
With atlas of maps. 
T. W. Higginson. Brief Biographies. Put. $1.50 a vol. 

1. English Statesmen. By T. W. Iligginson. 

2. English Radical Leaders. By R. J. Hinton. 
8. French Political Leaders. By Ediu. King. 

4. German Political Leaders. By Herbert Tuttle. 

See also lists 11 and 12, England and France. 



282 HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 

15. History of the United States. 

tGeo. Bancroft. History of the United States. 10 v. (to 1783), 
$25.00; two additional vols, to 1789, |5.00. 

The standard work; democratic in tone. Centenary edition (to 
1783) in G v., $13.50; complete edition now publishing in 6 v., 
$15.00. 
tR. TUldreth. History of the United States. 6 v. (to 1820). H. 
$12.00. 

Sound and generally accurate; Federalist in proclivities. 

Geo. Tucker. History of the United States. 4 v. (to 1841). Lip. 
$10.00. 

A Southern view; begins with the Revolution 

Wtn. C. Bryant and S. H. Gay. Popular Histoiy of the United 
States. 4v. Scr. $24.00. 

Handsomely illustrated. The early parts are the best. 

B. J. Lossing. Cyclopaedia of United States History. 2 v. H. 
$12.00. 

A valuable book of reference, but badly arranged. 

S. G. Drake. Dictionary of American Biography. Houghton. 

J. J. Lalor. Cyclopaedia of Political Science. 2 v. Ch. Cary. 

Each, $6.00. 

/. Winsor. Memorial History of Boston. 4 v. O. $25.00. 

A collection of monographs by various writers. 
Mrs. Martha J. Lamb. History of New York. 2 v. Barnes. $20.00. 

A work of very great merit. 

J. C. Ridpath. Popular History of the United States. Cincinnati. 
Jones. $3.00. 

The best history of an intermediate size. 

S. Eliot. History of the United States (to 1850). B. Ware. $1.35. 
Very judicious and accurate, but dry. 

J". A . Doyle. History of the United States. [Freeman's Historical 
Series.] Holt. $1.00. 

An excellent English work. 



HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 283 

R. Mackenzie. America. L. Nelson. fl.OO. 

Another good English work, embracing all America. 

.7. T. Short. Historical Reference Lists. Columbus. Smythe. 40 cts. 
Chiefly having reference to American history. 



./. T. Short. North Americans of Antiquity. H. 13.00. 

The best book upon the ethnology, etc., of the Indians. 
J. W. Foster. Prehistoric Races of the United States. Ch. Griggs. 

-13.00. 

The best work upon American archaeology. 

G. E. Elas. The Red Man and the White Man. L. & B. |3.50. 

F. A. Walhcr. The Indian Question, fl.50. 

G. W. Manypenny. Our Indian Wards. Cincinnati. Clarke. $3.00. 
Mrs. Jackson {H. II.). A Century of Dishonor. IL |1.50. 

%II. H. Bancroft. Native Races of the Pacific States. 5 v. San 
Francisco. Each, !f4.50. 

A cyclopasdia of information. 
H. R. Schoolcraft. Indian Tribes of the United States. 6 v. Lip. 
$75.00. 

Contains much information, with much useless matter. 
G. W. Williams. History of the Negro Race in America. 2 v. 
Put. $7.00. 

Colonial Period. 1607 to 1763. 

Jas. Grahame. History of the United States of North America. 
4 V. L. £2 10s. 

A fair and friendly English accoimt, reaching 1770. 

E. D. Neill. The Eui^iish Colonization of America. L. 14s. 

Of especial value for the Middle States. 
XH. C. Lodge. Short History of the English Colonies. H. $3.00. 

An excellent compendium, arranged by colonies. 
XJ. A. Doyle. English Colonies in America. Vol. I. Holt. $3.50. 

Vol. I. contains the Southern colonies. It is a very good work. 

F. F. Charlevoix. History of New France. f 6 v. N.Y. $45.00. 



284 HISTORICAL LITERATTTRE AND AUTHORITIES. 

XF. Parhnan. France and England in North America. 7 v. L. & B. 
Each, f2.50. 

1. The Pioneers of France in the New World. 

2. The Jesuits in North America. 

3. The Discovery of the Great West. 

4. The Old Regime in Canada. 

5. Count Frontenac and New France. 
The Conspiracy of Pontiac. 2 v. 

A series of the highest excellence. 

T. Mante. History of the Late War in North America. L. 1772. 
An authentic account of the French and Indian war. 

XJ. G. Palfrey. History of New England. 4 v. L. & B. $U.50. 
The best history of New England. 

Massachusetts and her Early History. L. & B. 

An instructive series of lectures by different persons. 

Peter Oliver. The Puritan Commonwealth. L. & B. $2.50. 
Hostile to the Puritans. 

J. H. Trumbull. The True Blue Laws of Connecticut and New 
Haven, and the False Blue Laws, invented by the Rev. Samuel 
Peters. Hartford. Am. Pub. Co. 

XR- Frothingham. Rise of the Republic. L. & B. 13.50. 
A history of the growth of the sentiment of union. 

E. G. Scott. The Development of Constitutional Liberty in the 
English Colonies of America. Put. $2.50. 

XJ- G. Shea, Discovery and Exploration of the Mississippi Valley. 

16.00. 

Indispensable to the student of western history. 

R. Blanchard. Discovery and Conquests of the Northwest. Ch. 

MacCoun. $3.00. 

Mrs. Anne Grant. Memoirs of an American Lady. Albany. Munsell. 

$3.00. 

A graphic picture of life in Albany before the revolution. 

See also articles by T. W. Higginson, John Fiske, and Eclw. Eggleston 
in Harper's Monthly and the Century for 1882 and 1883. 



HISTORICAL LITEKATURE AND AUTHOKITIES. 285 

Revolutionary Period. 1763 to 1789. 

|/. Winsor. Handbook of the American Revolution. Houghton. 

$1.25. 

An exhaustive list of authorities. 

/. M. Ludloiv. I'he War of American Independence. E. & L. $1.00. 
An English work belonging to the Epochs Series. 

XG. W. Greene. Historical View of the American Revolution. 
Houghton, fl.50. 

An instructive series of lectures. 

Id. The German Element in the War of Independence. Houghton. 
11.50. 

XB. J. Lossing. Field-book of the Revolution. 2 v. H. $14.00. 
A description of the battle-fields, etc. 

H. B. Carrington. Battles of the Revolution. Barnes. $6.00. 

By an army officer; with plans of battle-fields, etc. 
Thos. Jones. New York during the Revolutionary War. 2 v. App. 
$15.00. 

By a Tory; its unfairness shown by H. P. Johnston. 

L. C. Draper. King's JNIountain and its Heroes. Cincinnati. 
Thomson. $4.00. 

A valuable monograph. 
W. L. Stone. Border Wars of the American Revolution. 2 v. H. 

$1.50. 
C. W. Butterfield. The Washington-Irvine Correspondence. Madi- 
son (Wis.). Atwood. 

An important work for the history of the North-west. 

W. H. Trescot. Diplomacy of the Revolution. App. 75 cents. 

A. S. Bolles. Financial History of the United States. (1774-1860.) 
2 V. App. $6.00. 

XG. T. Curtis. History of the Constitution. 2 v. H. $6.00. 

L. Sabine. History of the American Loyalists. 2 v. L. & B. $7.00. 
A work of great merit and value. 

Familiar Letters of John and Abigail Adams. Houghton. $2,00. 



286 HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 

Period of the Repuhlic. 

\.J. B. McMaster. History of the People of the United States. App. 

.|2.50. 

Only one vol. published; gives special attention to social history. 

Jas. Schouler. Plistory of the American Republic. Washington. 
Morrison. )g5.00. 

Two volumes published, reaching 1817. 

W. R. Houghton. Hist, of American Politics. Indianapolis. Neely. 
With numerous illustrative diagrams. 

A.W.Young. The American Statesman. N.Y. Goodspeed. -15.00. 

Contains a good summary of congressional debates, etc. 
E. Williams. Statesman's Manual. N.Y. 

XAlex. Johnston. History of American Politics. Holt. $1.00. 
A brief compendium of high merit. 
J. Marshall. Life of Washington. 2 v. Ph. Claxton. 1G.00. 

Contains the best political history of Washington's administra- 
tion. 

W. H. Trescot. Diplomatic History of the Adnainistrations of 
Washington and Adams. L. & B. $1.25. 

J//, von Hoist. Constitutional History of the United States. Ch. 
Callagban. 811.50. 

The three volumes published reach 1850. 
H. Adams. Documents Relatmg to New England Federalism. 

14.00. 

Throws much light upon the history of the party. 

B. J. Lossing. Field-book of the War of 1812. H. $7.00. 

G. W. Cullum. Campaigns of the War of 1812-15. N.Y. MiUer. 

$5.00. 

By an army officer. 

R.Johnson. History of the War of 1812. Dodd,Mead,&Co. $1.25. 

A shorter and pojjular work. 
t Theodore Roosevelt. The Naval War of 1812. Put. $2.50. 

An accurate and impartial account. 
R. S. Ripley. The War with Mexico. 2 v. 
W. G. Sumner. History of American Currency. Holt. $3.00. 



HISTOKICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 287 

The First Ceutmy of the Republic. 1876. 11. ^5.00. 

A valuable collection of essays surveying the period. 
T. H. Benton. Thirty Years in the United States Senate. 2 v. 
App. ^6.00. 

Covering the period from 1821 to 1851. 
Nathan Sargent. Public ]\Ien and Events. 2 v. Lip. 

Reminiscences from 1817 to 1883 ; Whig in tone. 
H. Wilson. History of the Rise and Fall of the Slave Power. 3 v. 
Houghton. Each, ^3.00. 



W. H. Prescott. History of the Conquest of Mexico. 3 v. Lip. 

$11.50. 
Id. History of the Conquest of Peru. 2 v. Lip. §3.00. 
A. Helps. The Spanish Conquest of America. 4 v. H. $6.00. 
C. A. Washburn. History of Paraguay. 2 v. L. & S. $7.50. 
See also Carlyle's article on Dr. Francia. 

C. R. Markham. The War Between Peru and Chili, 1879-82. 
N.Y. Worthington. 

The Civil War. 

XConite de Paris. History of the Civil War. 3 v. published. Ph. 
Porter & Coates. $3.50 a vol. 

The best history of the war, so far as completed. 
JiCampaigns of the Civil War. Scr. $1.00 per vol. 

1. /. G. Nicolay. The Outbreak of Rebellion. 

2. M. F. Force. From Fort Henry to Corinth. 

3. A. S. Webb. The Peninsula. 

4. /. C. Ropes. The Army under Pope. 

5. F. W. Palfrey. The Antietam and Fredericksburg. 

6. A. Doubleday. Chancellorsville and Gettysbm-g. 

7. H. M. Cist. The Army of the Cumberland. 

8. F. V. Greene. The ^Mississippi. 

9. /. D. Cox. The Campaign of Atlanta. 

10. Id. The March to the Sea. 

11. G. E. Pond. The Shenandoah Valley m 1861. 

12. A. A. Humphreys. The Campaigns of Grant in A^irginia. 



288 HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 

The Navy in the Civil AVar. Scr. $1.00 per vol. 

1. J. R. Soley. The Blockade and the Cruisers. 

2. Daniel Ammen. The Atlantic Coast. 

3. A. T. Malian. The Gulf and Inland Waters. 

These fourteen small vols, are all by persons specially qualified 
to write upon their subjects, and form an admirable condensed 
history of the war. 

Supplementary volumes : — 

F. Phisterer. Statistical Record of the Armies of the United 

States. 
A. A. Hu7nphreys. Gettysburg to the Rapidan. 

J. W. Draper. History of the American CivilWar. 3 v. H. ^10.50. 

With an introduction ujjon the influence of physical causes upon 
American history. 

//. Greeley. The American Conflict. 2 v. Hartford. Case. $10.00. 

Jejf. Davis. Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government. 2 v. 
App. ,110.00. 

A. H. Stephens. Constitutional View of the Late War between the 
States. Nat. Pub. Co. $5.50. 

These two volumes, by the president and vice-president of the 
Confederacy, present the Southern view. See also — 

E. A. Pollard. The Lost Cause. N.Y. Treat. $5.00. and 

J. E. Johnston. Narrative of Military Operations. App. $5.00. 

A. Badeau. Military History of U. S. Grant. 3 v. App. $12.00. 

W. T. Sherman. Memoirs. 2 v. App. $5.50. 

W. Sunnton. Campaigns of the Army of the Potomac. N.Y. 
Richardson. $4.00. 

For original documents : — 
The War of the Rebellion. Published by Congress. 
Frank Afgpre,. The Rebellion Record. 12 v. Put, 



HISTORICAL, LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 289 

Histories of the States.* 
Maine. By W. D. Williamson. 2 v. Hallowell. |9.00. 
New Hampshire. By Jeremy Belknap. 3 v. B. $7.50. 
Vermont. By Zadock Thompson. Burlington, f 4.50. 
Massachusetts. By J. S. Barry. 3 v. B. |8.50. 
Rhode Island. By S. G. Arnold. 2 v. App. 16.00. 
Connecticut. By B. Trumbull. 2 v. New Haven. |9.00. 
Id. By G. H. Hollister. 2 v. New Haven. <f 5.00. 
New York. By /. R. Brodhead. 2 v. H. |6.00. 
New Jersey. By J. 0. Raum. 2 v. Ph. Potter. $6.00. 
Pennsylvania. By Robert Proud. 2 v. Ph. $12.00. 
Id. By W. H. Egle. Harrisburg. $5.50. 
Maryland. By J. L. Bozman. 2 v. Baltimore. $5.00. 
Virginia. Bj R. R. Hotvison. 2 v. Richmond. $6.00. 
North Carolina. By /. W. Moore. 2 v. Raleigh. $5.00. 
South Carolina. By D. Ramsay. 2 v. Charleston. $4.00. 
Id. By W. G. Simms. N.Y. Redfield. $2.25. 
Georgia. By W. B. Steve7is. 2 v. Ph. $5.00. 
Florida. By G. R. Fairbanks. Lip. $2.50. 
Alabama. By A. J. Picket. 2 v. Charleston. $7.50. 
Mississippi. By /, F. H. Claiborne. Jackson. 2 v. $7.00- 
Louisiana. By C. Gayarre. 3 v. N.Y. $12.00. 
Texas. By i7. Yoakum. 2 v. N.Y. Redfield. $8.00. 
Tennessee. By /. G. M. Ramsey. Lip. $2.50. 
Kentucky. By Humphrey Marshall. 2 v. Frankfort. $14.50. 
Ohio. B^ Jas. W. Taylor. [Unfinished ; ends 1787.] Cincinnati. 

$6.00. 
Id. By /. S. C. Abbott. Detroit. $4.00. 
Indiana. By John B. Dillon. Indianapolis. $3.00. 

* For this selected list I am principally indebted to Mr. D. S. Durrie, 
Librarian of the Wisconsin Historical Society. 



290 HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 

Illinois. B J A. Davidson and B. Stuve. Springfield. $5.00. 

Michigan. By Jas. V. Campbell. Detroit. $4.50. 

Id. By /. H. Lanman. H. 75 cents. 

Minnesota. By E. D. Neill. Minneapolis. $2.50, 

Wisconsin. By W. R. Smith. [Unfinished.] Madison. 

Kansas. By D. W. Wilder. Topeka. $5.00. 

Missouri. By W. F. Sivitzler. St. Louis. Barns. f2.50. 

California. By Franklin Tuthill. San Francisco. Bancroft. 

Oregon. By W. H. Gray. Portland. $4.00. 

^American Commonwealths. Houghton. 

Virginia. By John Esten Cooke. 
History of the Pacific States. By H. H. Bancroft [now publishing]. 

San Francisco. Bancroft. 

Biographies. 

George Washington. By W. Irving. 5 v. Put. $5.00. 

Alexander Hamilton. By J. T. Morse. 2 v. L. & B. $4.50. 

John Adams. By J. Q. and C. F. Adams. Lip. $2.00. 

Thomas Jefferson. By H. S. Randall. 3 v. Lip. $9.00. 

Id. By Jas. Parton. Houghton. $2.00. 

Benjamin Franklin (autobiography). By /. Bigelow. 3 v. Lip. 

$7.50. 
Id. By Jas. Parton. 2 v. Houghton. $4.00. 
General N. Greene. By G. W. Greene. 3 v. Put. $12.00. 
Israel Putnam. By I. N. Tarbox. Lockwood, Brooks, & Co. $2.50. 
F. W. Steuben. By Fred Kapp. H. 
Patrick Henry. By W. Wirt. Ph. Claxton. $1.50. 
Timothy Picker^g. By 0. Pickering and C. W. Upham. 4 v. 

L. & B. $14.J0. 
James Madison. By W. C. Rives. 3 v. L. & B. $10.50. 
John Jay. By Wm. Jay. H. 
Gouverneur Morris. By Jared Sparks. L. & B. 
William Pinkney. By Henry Wheaton. $1.25. 



HISTORICAL LITERATURE A^H) AUTHORITIES. 291 

Albert GaUatiii. By H. Adams. Lip. $5.00. 

George Cabot. By H. C. Lodge. L. & B. .|3.50. 

Aaron Burr. By Jas. Parton. 2 v. Houghton. $4.00. 

Andrew Jackson. By Jas. Parton. 3 v. Houghton. $6.00 

Daniel Webster. By G. T. Curtis. 2 v. App. ^.00. 

Josiah Quincy. By Edmund Quincy. 0. $3.00. 

W. L. Garrison. By 0. Johnson. B. Russell. 

W. H. Seward. By F. W. Seward. App. $4.25. 

Charles Siunner. By E. L. Pierce. 2 v. R. $6.00. 

James Buchanan. By G. T. Curtis. 2 v. H. 

Abraham Lincoln. By H. J. Raymond. N.Y. Derby. $1..50. 

Id. By C. G. Leland. [New Plutarch.] Put. $1.00. 

Library of American Biography. Edited by Jared Sparks. 10 v- 

H. $12.50. 
Theodore Parker. Historic Americans. [Washington, Jefferson, 

Frankliu, Adams.] B. Fuller. $1.50. 
{American Statesmen. Houghton. Per vol., $1.25. Contains : — 

Alexander Hamilton. By H. C. Lodge. 

J. Q. Adams. By J. T. Morse. 

J. C. Calhoim. By H. von Hoist. 

Andrew Jackson. By W. G. Sumner. 

John Randolph. By H. Adams. 

James Monroe. By D. C. Gilman. 

Thomas Jefferson. By /. T. Morse. 

Daniel Webster. By H. C. Lodge. 
See also the next list. 

A uthorities. 
W. Bradford. Histoiy of the Plymouth Plantation. $2.25. 
Alex. Young. Chronicles of Plymouth. 
Id. Chronicles of Massachusetts. 2 v. $5.00. 
Records of the Governor and Company of Massachusetts Bay. 
Edited by /. W. Thornton. 



292 HISTORICAL LITERATUEE AND AUTHORITIES. 

John Winthrop. History of New England. 1630-49. 2 v. $5.00, 
By the first governor of Massachusetts. 

Thos. Hutchinson. History of the Province of Massachusetts Bay. 
$4.00. 

The author was lieutenant-governor of the colony, and a strong 
Tory. 

Documents Relating to the Colonial History of the State of New 
York. 11 V. Albany. Published by the State. 

American Archives. Edited by Peter Force. 

American State Papers. 

Congressional Documents, etc. 

Elliot's Debates [of the Constitution]. 5 v. Lip. $12.50. 

Annals of Congress. 

Archseologia Americana. 

T. H. Benton. Abridgment of Debates of Congress. 1789-1856. 
16 V. App. 

The Federal and State Constitutions, etc. Compiled by B. P. Poore. 

Washington. 1878. 

Treaties and Conventions, etc. Washington. 1871. 

Life and Writings of George Washington. 12 v. H. $18.00. 

Life and Works of John Adams. 10 v. L. & B. $30.00. 

Works of Alexander Hamilton. 7 v. N.Y. Trow. $21.00. 

Letters and Other Writings of James Madison. 4 v. Lip. $16.00. 

Writings of Thomas Jefferson. 9 v. Lip. $23.50. 

Life and Writmgs of Benjamin Franklin. 10 v. Ch. $20.00. 

Papers of James Madison. 4 v. Ph. $16.00. 

Works of Daniel Webster. 6 v. L. & B. $18.00. 

Life and Works of John C. Calhoun. 6 v. App. $15.00. 

Works of Henry Clay. 6 v. $18.00. 



HISTORICAL LITEEATITRE AND AUTHOKITIES. 293 



16. Selected List of Historical Novels, Poems, and Plays, 
Arranged Chronologically. 

A.Lang. Helen of Troy. (Poem.) 
W. Morris. Jason. (Poem.) 

Id. The Earthly Paradise. 

A collection of poems narrating Greek and German legends. 
C. Kingsley. Andromeda. (Poem.) 
A. C. Sicinhurne. Atalanta in Calydon. (Poem.) 

B.C. 

15th century. — Ebers. Uarda [Rameses II.]. 
6th centm-y. — Id. Daughter of an Egyptian King. 
5th centmy. — Landor. Pericles and Aspasia. 
2d century. — Ebers. The Sisters. 
1st century. — SJiakespeare . Julius Csesar (Drama). 

a.d. 

1st century. — /. F. Clarke. Thomas Didymus. 
Philochristus. Onesimus. 
Bidiver. The Last Days of Pompeii. 
2d century. — Ebers. The Emperor [Hadrian]. 
3d century. — Cardinal Netnnan. Callista. 

Cardinal Wiseman. Fabiola [The Catacombs]. 
Mrs. Hunt. The Wards of Plotmus. 
W. Ware. Zenobia. Aurelian. 
4th century. — Ebers. Homo Sum [.330, Sinai]. 

V. Rydherg. The Last Athenian [oGl]. 
5th century. — C. Kingsley. Hypatia [Alexandria]. 

Wilkie Collins. Antonina, or the Fall of Rome. 
8th century. — G. Freytag. Our Forefathers: Ingraban. 
10th century.— S'fAe^e?. Ekkehart [The Monks of St. GaUen]. 

Taylor. Edwin the Fair (Drama) . 
11th century. — Buliuer. Harold, the Last of the Saxon Kings. 
Kingsley. Hereward, the Last of the English. 
12th century. — Scott. The Betrothed. The Talisman. Ivanhoe. 
Lessing. Nathan the Wise (Drama). 



294 HISTORICAL LTTERATmiE AND AUTHORITIES. 

12th century. — The Luck of Ladysmede. 

E. E. Hale. In his Name [Waldenses]. 
13th century. — Shakespeare. King John (Drama). 

C. Kingsley. The Saints' Tragedy. 

G. P. R.James. Forest Days [Simon de Montfort]. 

Mrs. Hemans. The Vespers of Palermo (Drama). 
14th century. — Schiller. Wilhelm Tell (Drama). 

Bulwer. Rienzi, the Last of the Tribunes. 

Taylor. Philip van Artevelde (Drama). 

Shakespeare. Richard II. (Drama). 
15th century. — Id. Henry IV., V., VI. Richard III. (Dramas). 

Schiller. Die Jungfrau von Orleans (Drama). 

Scott. Fair Maid of Perth. Quentin Durward. 
Anne of Geierstein. 

Buliver. The Last of the Barons [Warwick]. 

C. Reade. The Cloister and the Hearth. 

Geo. Eliot. Romola [Savonarola]. 
10th century. — Shakespeare. Henry VIII. (Drama). 

Scott. Marmion. Lady of the Lake. Lay of the Last 
Minstrel (Poems). — The Monastery. The Ab- 
bot. Kenilworth. 

Kingsley. Amyas Leigh, or Westward Ho ! 

Schiller. Maria Stuart (Drama). 

Gmthe. Egmont (Drama). 
17th century. — Scott. Fortunes of Nigel. Legend of IMontrose. 
Woodstock. Peveril of the Peak. Old Mortality. 
— Rokeby (Poem). 

Manzoni. The Betrothed [Milan, 1628]. 

Schiller. Wallenstein (Drama). 

Shorthouse. John Inglesant. 

Browning. Strafford (Drama). The Ring and the 
Book (Poem). 

Ainsworth. Old Saint Paul's. 

Auerhach. Spinoza. 

Blackmore. Lorna Doone. 
18th century. — Thackeray . Henry Esmond. The Virginians. 

Scott. Rob Roy. The Heart of Midlothian. Waverly. 
Rederauntlet. 



HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 295 

18th century. — Browning. King Victor and King Charles (Drama). 
Dickens. Barnaby Rudge (1780). 
Miss Burney (Mad. D'Arhlay). Evelina. 
Revolutionary epoch : — 

Victor Hugo. Ninety-three. Les Miserables. 
Mrs. Gaskell.- Sylvia's Lovers. 
Geo. Eliot. Adam Bede. 

Blackmore. The Maid of Sker. Alice Lorraine. 
Dickens. Tale of Two Cities. 
Erckmann-Chatrian. The States General. The 
Country in Danger. Madame Therese. Year 
One. Citizen Bonaparte. 
Miss Roberts. On the Edge of the Storm. Noblesse 

Oblige. 
Fritz Renter. Li the Year Thirteen. 
Erckmann-Chatrian. The Conscript. The Invasion 
of France. The Siege of Phalsburg. Waterloo. 

American History. 

17th century. — Longfellow. The Courtship of Miles Standish. 

Hawthorne. The Scarlet Letter. 

Paulding. The Dutchman's Fu'eside. 

Miss Sedgivick. Hope Leslie. 

Whittier. Mogg Megone. 
18th century. — Simms. The Yemassee (S.C., 1715). 

Longfellow. Evangeline (Poem). 

Mrs. Stoioe. The Minister's Wooing. 

J. E. Cooke. The Virginia Comedians. 

Cooper. Leather-Stocking Tales. 
Revolution. — Cooper. The Spy. The Pilot. 

Kennedy. Horseshoe Robinson. 

Winthrop. Edwin Brothertoft. 

Simms. The Partisan, etc. 



PART II. 

BOOKS FOR COLLATERAL READING IN CONNECTION 
WITH CLASS WORK* 

1. General History. 

E. Clodd. The Childhood of the World. App. 75 cents. 

Id. The Childhood of Religions. App. $1.25. 

Designed to give children correct notions of primeval times. 
/. Bonner. Child's History of Greece. 2 v. H. |2.50. 
Id. Child's History of Rome. 2 v. H. |2.50. 
Airs. C. H. B. Laing. The Seven Kings of the Seven Kills. Ph. 
Porter & Coates. |1.00. 

Id. The Heroes of the Seven Hills. Ph. Porter & Coates. $1.25. 

These two books contain the legends of early Roman history. 
Chas. Dickens. Child's History of England. $1.00. 
J. Bonner. Child's History of England. H. 

S. R. Gardiner. English History for Young Folks. Holt. §1.00. 

A work of the greatest soundness and accuracy. 
L. Creighton. Stories from English History. N.Y. Whittaker. 
/. R. Green. Readings in English History. Macm. $1.50. 

Sir W. Scott. Tales of a Grandfather. 

Stories from Scotch and French history. 
Sarah Brook. French History for English Children. Macm. $2.00. 

An admirable book with good maps. 
Miss C. S. Kirkland. Short History of France. Ch. Jansen, $1.50. 

S. Lanier. The Boys' Froissart. Scr. $3.00. • 

A selection of the best stories from the prince of chroniclers. 

Belt and Spui-. Scr. $2.00. 

Stories from the mediaeval chronicles; excellently illustrated. 

* In this list I have derived much assistance from "Books for the 
Young," by Miss C. M. Hewins of the Hartford Library. 



BOOKS FOR COLLATERAL READING. 297 

G. M. Towle. Heroes of History. [Marco Polo, Vasco da Gama, 
Magellan, Pizarro, Drake, Raleigh.] L. & S. 

An excellent series of biographies. Each, $1.25. 

Historical Biographies. Rivington. Each, $1.00: — 
Simon de Montfort. By M. Creighton. 
The Black Prince. By i. Creighton. 
Sir Walter Raleigh. By L. Creighton. 
Marlborough. By L. Creighton. 

M. J. finest. Lectures on English History. Macm. f 1.50. 
Good for young people above the age of children. 

Mrs. M. E. Green. The Princesses of England. 6 v. Each, \0s. Gd. 

The Young Folks' History. E. & L. Each, $1.50. Includes : — 
America. By H. Butterworth. 
Russia. By N. H. Dole. 
Queens of England. By RosaCie Kaufman. 
Mexico. By F. ^ . Ober. 

England, Germany, France, Greece, Rome, and Bible History. 
By Miss Yonge. 

A. J. Church. The Last Days of Jerusalem. L. Seeley. |2.00. 

/. Abbott. Biographies of Famous Persons (about thirty in all). H. 
Each, $1.00. 

Brooke Herford. The Story of Religion m England. Ch. Jansen. 
$1.50. 

Thos. Archer. Decisive Events in History. C. $1.75. 
Handsomely illustrated. 

Mrs. H. R. Haweis. Chaucer for Children. L. Chatto & Windus. 

$2.25. 

Id. Spenser for Children. $3.75. 

Beautifully illustrated ; instructive for manners, costumes, etc. 



298 BOOKS FOB, COLLATERAL EEADLNG 

2. American History. 

N. Hmcthorne. True Stories. [Grandfather's Chair, etc.] Hough- 
ton. -11.00. 

The early history of New England. 
C. C. Coffin. Old Times in the Colonies. H. |3.00. 
Id. The Boys of 76. H. $3.00. 
Id. The Building of the Nation. H. $3.00. 
Id. The Boys of '61. H. $3.00. 

A handsomely illustrated series of works. 

E. Eggleston. Famous American Indians. [Montezuma, Pocar 
hontas, etc.] N.Y. Dodd, Mead, & Co. Each, $1.25. 

M.Scheie de Vere. Romance of American History. Put. $1.25. 

J. D. Champlin. Young Folks' History of the War for the Union. 
Holt. $2.75. 

An excellent book, well illustrated. 
J. Bonner. Child's History of the United States. 3 v. H. $3.75. 
Mrs. A. S.Richardson. History of Our Country. Houghton. $4.50. 

T. W. Higginson. Young Folks' History of America. L. & S. $1.!30. 

Bonner's is designed for younger children than the others ; 
Mrs. Richardson is superior in narration ; Higginson in com- 
pleteness of view. 

Id. Young Folks' History of Explorers. L. & S. $1.50. 

C. H. Woodman. Boys and Girls of the Revolution. Lip. $1.25. 

/. A'. Hosmer. The Color Guard. B. Fuller. $1.50. 

Id. The Thinking Bayonet. B. Fuller. $1.75. 

Belong to the war of the rebellion. 
C. K. True. Life of Captain John Smith. N.Y. Phillips & Hunt. 
$1.00. 

Centenary History of the United States. N.Y. Barnes. $5.00. 
An excellent family history. 



m CONNECTION WITH CLASS WORK. 299 

3. Myths and Legends. 

N. Hawthorne. Wonder-book. Houghton. fl.OO. 

Id. Tanglewood Tales. Houghton. fl.OO. 

Tell the story of several Greek myths in a charming manner. 
Chas. Kingsley. The Heroes. Macm. fl.50. 

The Greek heroic legends. 
Thos. Bulfinch. The Age of Fable. L. & S. |2.50. 

A new edition, well illustrated, edited by Rev. E. E. Hale. 
C. Witt. Classical Mythology. Holt. !|1.25. 

Not a complete mythology, but a collection of legends, with 
their explanation. ,3^ 

A. J. Church. Stories from Homer. L. Seeley. $2.00. 

Id. Stories from Virgil. $2.00. 

Id. Stories from the Greek Tragedies. $2.00. 

Id. Stories [of the East] from Herodotus. $2.00. 

Id. Stories from Livy. $2.00. 

Id. Stories of the Persian War. $2.00. 

Id. Travellers' True Tales from Lucian. $2.00. 

Id. Heroes and Kings. $2.00. 

M.Frere. Eastern Fairy Legends. (Old Deccan Days.) Lip. $1,25. 

A. B. Mitford. Tales of Old Japan. Macm. $2.00. 

W. E. Griffis. Japanese Fairy World. $1.50. 

P. W. Joyce. Old Celtic Romances. $3.00. 

J. F. Camjihell. Popular Tales of the West Highlands. 4 v. Ed. 
Edmonston. 32s. 

W. R. S. Ralston. Russian Folk-tales. N.Y. Worthington. $1.50. 

W. H. J. Bleek. Hottentot Fables. L. Trubner. 3s. Qd. 

J. C. Harris. Uncle Remus. [Negro stories.] App. $1.50. 

H. W. Longfellow. Hiawatha. (Poem.) $1.00. 



300 BOOKS FOR COLLATEEAL EEADING 

Thos. Bulfinch. Legends of Charlemagne. L. & S. $3.00. 
Id. The Age of Chivalry. [King Arthur.] $2.50. 

C. H. Hanson. Stories of the Days of King Arthur. L. Nelson. 
11.50. 

5. Lanier. The Boys' King Arthur. Scr. |3.00. 

/(/. The Boys' Mabinogion. Scr. -|3.00. 

Admirable collections of old legends. 

/. Sf W. Grimm. German Popular Tales. Macm. $2.00. 

G. W. Dasent. Popular Tales from the Norse. Ed. Edmonston. 

12.50. ^ 

A. ^ E. Keary. Heroes of Asgard. Macm. $1.00. 

W. Wagner. Asgard and the Gods. Lip. $2.50. 

Id. Epics and Romances of the Middle Ages. Lip. $2.50. 
Interesting and handsomely illustrated works. 

//. W. Mahie. Norse Stories retold from the Edda. R. $1.00. 

R. B. Anderson. Viking Tales of the North. Ch. Griggs. $2.00. 

Miss A. A. Woodward \_Auber Forestier']. Echoes from Mist-land. 
Ch. Griggs. $1.50. 

A pleasing presentation of the story of the Nibelungs. 

Jas. Baldwin. The Story of Siegfried. Scr. $3.00. 
Id. The Story of Roland. Scr. $2.00. 
F. Mallet. Northern Antiquities. Bell. $2.00. 
An old but valuable work. 

Sir G. W. Cox and E. H. Jones. Popular Romances of the Middle 
Ages. Holt. $2.25. 

A valuable collection of legends. 

S. Baring Gould. Curious ISIyths of the Middle Ages. Lip. $2.50. 



IN CONNECTION WITH CLASS WOKK. 301 

4. Tales Illustrating History. 

Miss Yonge. Historical Dramas [at several epochs]. 

Is. 
Mrs. Charles. Early Dawn. [A series, covering 
several centuries.] ^1.00. 
10th century. — Miss Yonge. The Little Duke [Richard the Fearless]. 
$1.25. 
Crake. Edwy the Fair. Soc. $1.00. 
11th century. — /t?. Alf gar the Dane. Soc. $1.00. 
Id. The Rival Heirs. Soc. $1.00. 
Id. The Andreds-weald. [Norman conquest.] $1.00. 
Edgar. Danes, Saxons, and Normans. $3.00. 
12th century. — Ballantyne. Eriing the Bold. [Iceland.] $1.25. 
13th century. — JEJf/^ror. How I Won my Spurs. $3.00. 

Miss Yonge. Prince and Page. [Edward I.] $1.25. 
14th century. — Miss A guitar. Days of Bruce. $1.00. 

Miss Yonge. Lances of Lin wood. [Edward III.] 
75 cents. 
15th century. — Miss Yonge. Caged Lion. [James I. of Scotland.] 
$1.25. 
Howitt. Jack of the Mill. [Henry V.] $1.75. 
Edgar. War of the Roses. $1.20. 
MissYonge. Dove in the Eagle's Nest. [Maximilian.] 

$1.00. 
Miss Aguilar. Vale of Cedars. $1.00. 
16th century. — Mrs. Charles. Schbnberg-Cotta Family. [Luther.] 
$1.00. 
Miss Manning. Household of Sir Thomas Moore. 

$1.00. 
Id. The Faire Gospeller. $1.00. 
Id. Colloquies of Edward Osborne. [Edward VI.] 
75 cents. 



302 BOOKS FOR COLLATERAL READING. 

16th centmy. — Miss Maniiing. Good Old Times. [Auvergne, 
1549.] 7s. Qd. 

Mrs. Charles. The Martyrs of Spain. [1.561.] 



|.|l.-2 



. „- 25. 
Id. The Liberators of Holland. 

MissYonye. Chaplet of Pearls. [Charles IX.] $1.50. 

Id. Unknown to History. [Mary Queen of Scots.] 
$1.50. 
17th century. — Marryat. Children of the New Forest. $1.2.5. 

Mrs. Davis. Diary of Lady Willoughby. $3.00. 

Miss Maiming. Married and Maiden Life of Mary- 
Powell [wife of J(Jhn Milton]. $1.00. 

Macdonald. St. George and St. Michael. $1.50. 

Mrs. Charles. The Draytons and Davenants. $1.00. 

Id. On Both Sides of the Sea [continuation]. $1.00. 

Miss Manning. Cherry and Violet. $1.00. 

Id. Deborah's Diary. Is. 

Id. Jacques Bonneval. [The Dragonnades.] 75 cts. 

Henty. The Cornet of Horse. $1.50. 
18th century. — Mrs. Charles. Diary of Mrs. Kitty Trevylyan. $1.00. 

Miss Manning. Old Chelsea Bun-house. Is. 

Miss Martineau. Peasant and Prince. [Louis XVII.] 
50 cents. 

Miss Tytler. Citoyenne Jacqueline. $2.00. 

Mrs. Charles. Agamst the Stream. [Wilberforce.] 
$1.00. 
19th century. — Miss Yonge. Kenneth. $1.00. 

Henty. The Young Buglers. [Peninsular war.] 
$2.25. 

Miss Manning. The Year Nine. [Andreas Hofer.] 
7s. Qd. 



PART III. 

SCHOOL TEXT-BOOKS. 
1. General History. 

A Brief History of Ancient (11.17), Medifeval, and Modern Peoples 
(81.17). N.Y. Barnes. 

Especially good iu the history of civilization. 
J. J. Anderson. New General History: 1. Ancient, $1.20 ; 2. Medi- 
aeval and Modern, 81.38. N.Y. Clark & Maynard. In 1 v., $1.92. 
Distinguished for clearness and accuracy. 
Miss M. E. Thalheimer. An Outline of General History. Cincin- 
nati. Van Antwerp. |1.40. 

Illustrated with excellent maps. 
W. Swinton. Outlines of History. N.Y. Ivison. $1.66. 

A book of much j^ractical merit. 
Marcius Willson. Outlines of History. N.Y. Ivison. <|1.66 and 

$2.49. 

A work of solid merit, but rather heavy. 

Miss Emma Willard. Universal History. N.Y. Barnes. $1.87. 

Entertaining in style, but diffuse. 
S. G. Goodrich. \_Peter Parleyl. Pictorial History of the World. 
Ph. Butler. $1.40. 

Particularly suited to young children. 
M. J. Keruey. Compendium of Ancient and Modern History. 
Baltimore. Murphy. $1.25. . 

A Catholic work of merit ; in too fine type. 
George Weber. Outlines of Universal History. B. Ware. $2.00. 
A full and valuable compendium, but dry and badly translated. 
R. H. Lahherton. Outlines of History, $2.00. — Questions on His- 
tory, $1.7.5. —Historical Atlas. N.Y. MacCoun. $1.50. 

An original and admirable method of instruction, but too exten- 
sive for most schools. 



304 SCHOOL TEXT-BOOKS. 

Id. Historical Chart ; or, History Taught by the Eye. 

A wall-chart ; very useful for instruction in dynastic history. 
A. S. Lyman. Historical Chart. Van Antwerp & Co. >^o.50. 

A useful chart for reference; not accurate in all details. 
W. F. Collier. Great Events of History. N.Y. Barnes. $1.40. 

An excellent outline, but in too fine type. 
A. Gilmati. First Steps in General History. Barnes. $1.25. 

A short and agreeable outline. 
E. A. Freeman. History Primer of Europe. App. 45 cents. 
Carl Ploetz. Epitome of Ancient, Mediteval, and Modern History. 
Houghton. $3.00. 

A very full and accurate book of reference, excellently trans 

lated, and with valuable additions. 



2. Ancient History. 

Miss M. E. Thalheimer. Ancient History. Cincinnati. Van 

Antwerp & Co. $1.87. 

An excellent work, but too large for most schools. 
R. F. Pennell. Ancient Greece. B. AUyn. 60 cents. 
Id. Rome. B. Allyn. 60 cents. 

Good and accurate compendiums. 
History Primers. Edited by /. R. Green. App. Each, 45 cents. 

Greece. By C. ^. Fyffe. 

Rome. By M. Creighton. 

Classical Geography. By H. F. Tozer. 

Old Greek Life. By J. P. Mahaffy. 

Roman Antiquities. By A . S. Wilkins. 
E. Abbott. Skeleton Outline of Greek History. Rivingtons. 

P. E. Matheson. Skeleton Outline of Roman History. Rivingtons. 

Contain very useful chronological and other tables. 
O. Seeman. Mythology of Greece and Rome. H. 60 cents. 
E. M. Berens. Myths and Legends of Ancient Greece. N.Y. 
Clark & Maynard. $1.08. 

Seeman's is best in connection with the history of art; Berens', 

for interest of narrative. 



SCHOOL TEXT-BOOKS. 305 

Classical Atlas. B. Ginn, Heath, & Co. $2.30. 

Student's Atlas of Classical Geography. Put. $1.50. 

Johnston's Wall-maps of Classical and Scriptural Geography. B. 

Ginn, Heath, & Co. 10 maps, $4:.00 each. 
Guyot's Classical Wall-maps. Scr. 3 maps, $35.00. 



/ 3. Modern History. 

Miss M. E. Thalheimer. Mediccval and Modern History. $1.87. 

Id. History of England. $1.17. 

The best history of England for common schools. 
/. /. Anderson. A Short Coui'se in English History. N.Y. Clai'k 
&Maynard. $1.08. 

A good and accurate compendium. 
David Morris. Class-book History of England. App. $1.25. 

A larger work, also excellent; well illustrated. 
Miss Annie Wall. History of England. St. Louis. Jones. $1.00. 

A good short work. 
E. M. Lancaster. Manual of English History. N.Y. Barnes. $1.17. 

Well written, and provided with good apparatus. 
W. M. Lupton. Concise English History. R. $1.50. 

Crowded with names and dates ; very useful for reference. 
Mrs. Markham. History of England. App. $1.30. 

A well-known English school-book. 
Brief History of France. N.Y. Barnes. $1.17. 

A book of great merit. 
J. Michelet. Modern History. Macm. $1.10. 

Excellent, but too crowded with names and dates. 
Students' Atlas of Historical Geography. Put. $1.50. 
C. S. Halsey. Chronological and Genealogical Chart of the Rulers 
of England, Scotland, France, and Germany. B. Ginn, Heath, 
& Co. 25 cents. 

There are no wall-maps of Modern History, except the German 
ones of Bretschneider, 



306 SCHOOL TEXT-BOOKS. 

4. American History. 

Marcius Willson. History of the United States. N.Y. Ivison. 

#1.25. 

Emma Willard. History of the United States. N.Y. Barnes. 
88 cents. 

These two books have the same qualities as the general histories 

of the same authors. 
D. B. Scott. School History of the United States. H. 80 cents. 

Excellent, especially for arrangement. 

/. C. Ridpath. History of tlie United States. Cincinnati. Jones. 
11.00, 11.50, $3.00. 

Illustrated with serviceable diagrams. 
J. J. Anderson. Popular School History of the United States. 
N.Y. Clark & Maynard. |1.44. 

Containing a large number of illustrative extracts from differ- 
ent authors. 

C. A. Goodrich. History of the United States of America. B. 
Ware. §1.30. 

Well adapted to niemoriter recitations. 
B. J. Lossing. Outline History of the United States. N.Y. Shel- 
don. $1.11. 

Entertaining and well illustrated ; too crowded with detail. 
G. P. Quackenbos. Illustrated School History of the United States. 
App. Sgl.25. 

Very well written, but poorly arranged. 

Miss M. E. Thalheimer. Eclectic History of the United States. 
Cincinnati. Van Antwerj). $1.17. 

With very good maps and illustrations. 
Excelsior Studies in the History of the United States. N.Y. 
Sadlier. .fl.25. 

A Catholic work ; also has excellent maps. 
A. H. Stephens. Compendium of the History of the United States. 
N.Y. Hale. |1.50. 

From a Southern point of view. 
/. W. Leeds. History of the United States of America. Lip. $1.54. 



SCHOOL TEXT-BOOKS. 307 

H. E. Scudder. History of the United States of Amei'ica. Ph. 
Butler. 

These two books are especially valuable in the history of civili- 
zation, Leeds is from a Quaker point of view; Scudder is 
beautifully illustrated. 

L. J. Camphell. Concise Scliool History of the United States. B. 
Ware. 87 cents. 

Based upon the work of C. A. Goodrich. 

W. Swinton. Condensed School History of the United States. 
N.Y. Ivison. fl.04. 

A brief skeleton of events. 

J. C. Martindale. History of tlie United States. Ph. Eldredge. 
$1.17. 

Of the same general character. 

Primer of United States History. N.Y. Armstrong. 50 cents. 

With very good historical maps. 
E. Abbott. Paragraph History of the United States. R. 50 cents. 
Id. Paragraph History of the American Revolution. R. 50 cents. 

See also Doyle (p. 282), Higginson,'and others (p. 298). 



The following are for younger scholars : — 

Brief History of the United States. N.Y. Barnes. $1.17. 
Well arranged and written. 

W. H. Venable. History of the United States. Cincinnati. Van 
Antwerp & Co. $1.00. 

A good book, with excellent maps. 

A. B. Berard. School History of the United States. Ph. Cow- 
perthwait. 81.10. 

A book of great merit, written in an interesting style. 
S. G. Goodrich. Pictorial History of the United States. Ph. 
Butler. $1.4G. 

Entertaining, but badly arranged. 



308 SCHOOL TEXT-BOOKS. 

One Thousand Questions in American History. Syracuse. Bardeen. 

A useful aid to teachers. 
R. Blanchard. Historical map of the United States. Ch. 
W. R. Houghton. Wall-chart of United States History. 

Id. Conspectus of the History of Political Parties. 

An ingenious diagram, containing much information. 

J. J. Andeison. United States Reader. N.Y. Clark & Mayiiard. 
11.30. 

Well selected extracts from historians, poets, and orators, illus- 
trating the history of the United States. 

L. H. Porter. Outlines of the Constitutional History of the United 
States. Holt. i^l.SO. 

Contains many valuable and interesting documents. 



SUPPLEMEI^T. 



CONTAINING ADDITIONAL BOOKS, CHIEFLY FRENCH AND GEBMAN, OR WORKS PUB- 
LISHED SINCE THE EARLIER LIST, ARRANGED UNDER THE SAME HEADS. 



PART I. 

HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 

1. Primitive Society. 

D. G. Brinton. Library of Aboriginal American Literature. Ph. 
[Published by the editor.] 

Invaluable for the study of native institutions and religion ; 
three volumes already published : 1. Chronicles of the Mayas; 
2. Iroquois Book of Rites ; 3. The Comedy-ballet of Guegence. 

Capt. J. C. Boiirke. The Snake Dance of the Moquis of Arizona. 
Scr. $5.00. 

An important contribution to the study of native Indian insti- 
tutions. 

J. G. Wood. The Uncivilized Races of Men in all Countries of the 
World. Hartford. Burr. $3.50. 

A very valuable collection of facts. 

See also article upon the Zufiis, by F. H. Cushing, in the Century 
for 1883. 

2. MYTnOLOGY. 

W. H. Roscher. AusfUhrliches Lexicon der griechischen und rom- 
ischen Mythologie. Lp. Teiibner. 
Appearing in parts. 
C. G. Leland. The Algonquin Legends of New England. Houghton. 



310 SUPPLEMENT. 

Ethnic Religions. 

Albert Reville. The Native Religions of Mexico and Peru. [Hibbert 
Lecture. 1884.] Scr. fl.OO. 

James Freeman Clarke. Ten Great Religions. Part II. : A conj 
parison of all religions. Houghton. 

3. History op Society. 

W. E. H. Lecky. History of European Morals from Augustui ^o 
Charlemagne. 2 v. App. 

K. T. V. Inama-Sternegg. Deutsche Wirthschaftsgeschichte. Vol. I. : 

Zum Schluss der Karolingerperiode. Lp. Duncker & Ilumblot. 

The first comijlete study of ecouomic phenomena for this period. 

E. Bonnemere. Histoire des Paysans. 2 v. P. Sandon et Fisch- 
bacher. 

Extends from the earliest times to the Revolution. 

C. Dareste de la Chavanne. Histoire des classes agricoles en France. 
P. Guillaumin. 

Henri Doniol. Histoire des classes rurales en France. P. Gu'illaumin. 
La Chavanne is most complete for the middle ages, p.oniol for 
the modern period. 

Samuel Sugenheim. Geschichte der Aufhebung der Leibei^enschaft 
und Horigkeit in Europa. Lp. Voss. 

The best work upon serfdom and its abolition. 

/. E. T. Rogers. Six Centuries of Work and Wages, i at. 

A history of the English laboring classes, based upoi, ,xn exhaus- 
tive study of economic facts. 

Toulmin Smith. English Gilds : with Introduction upon Uii History, 
etc., of Gilds, by Luj'o Brentano [which can be had ;eparate]. 
Early English Text Society. L. 

G. Fagniez. Etudes sur I'industrie et la classe industritile a Paris 

au xiii® et an xiv^ siecle. P. Viewig. 
W. Stieda. Zur Entstehung des deutschen Zunftwesens. Jena. 

Dufft. 



HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 311 

G. Sclianz. Zur Geschichte der deutschen Gesellenverbaiide im 
Mittelalter. Lp. Duncker & ITuniblot. 

These ten works, selected from a large literature, give a toler- 
ably complete view of the industrial classes in the middle ages. 

4. General History. 

W. Assmann. Handbuch der allgemeinen Geschichte. 5 v. 
Braunschweig. A^ieweg. 

Valuable for its references to authorities ; especially full for the 
middle ages. 

Georg Weber. Allgemeine Geschichte fiir die gebildeten Stande. 

14 V. 

The best complete universal history. The "Lehrbuch," by the 
same author, is regarded as the best German text-book. 
W. Oncken. Allgemeine Geschichte in Einzeldarstellungen. 

The following works have been added : F. Justi, Geschichte des 
alten Persiens. B. Kugler, Geschichte der Kreuzziige. S. Ruge, 
Zeitalter der Entdeckungen. L. Geiger, Renaissance und Hu- 
manismus. A. Bruckner, Katharina die Zweite. 

F. Laurent. Etudes sur I'Histoire de I'llunianite. 18 v. Bruxelles. 
A series of monographs. Probably the most suggestive general 
history. 

C. G. Wheeler. The Course of Empire. O. 

A brief summary of history by centuries, with abundant selec- 
tions ; an outline map for each century. 

L. Weisser. Bilderatlas zur Weltgeschichte. Stuttgart. Neff. 
50 numbers at 50 pf. = 86.50. 

A very large and useful collection of historical illustrations ; of 
unequal value. 

5. Ancient History. 

A. Baumeister. Deukmaler des Klassischen Alterthums zur Erlau- 
terung des Lebens der Griechen und Homer in Religion, Kunst 
undSitte: lexikalisch bearbeitet. R. Oldenboui-g. Miinchen. 
40 numbers at 1 mark = $10.00. 

H. A. Wallon. Histoire de I'Esclavage dans I'Antiquite. 3 v. P. 
The only complete treatise upon the subject. 



312 SUPPLEMENT. 

W. C. Wilkinson. Preparatory Latin Course in English; College 

Greek Course ; College Latin Course. Phillips & Hunt. 
Quellenbuch zur alten Geschichte. Lp. Teubner. 2 v. L Grie- 
chische Geschichte, 2. Romische Geschichte. 

Contains all the important authorities on classical history, in 
selections, chronologically arranged. 

6. Oriental History. 

A. H. Sayce. The Ancient Empires of the East. Scr. 

A compendious statement of the present condition of knowledge. 
G. Rawlinson. Ancient Empires of the East. Student's edition. 
5 V. Dodd, Mead, & Co. !g6.25. 

7. History of Greece. 

G. Gilbert. Handbuch der gTiechischen Staatsalterthiimer. Lp. 

Teubner. 

The best compendium of the subject. 
K. Fr. Hermann. Lehrbuch der griechischen Antiquitaten. 4 vol. 

Staats-, Gottesdienstliche- und Privatalterthumer. Freiburg. 

Mohr. 

The standard work ; a revised edition has been published. 

E. Kulin. Ueber die Entstehung der Stadte der Alten. Komen- 
verfassung und Synoikismos. Lp. Teubner. 

The best treatise upon the formation of political commimities 
among the Greeks. 

8. Roman History. 

G, Boissier. Ciceron et ses Amis. P. 

Id. La Religion romaine d'Auguste aux Antonins. 2 v. P. 

P. B. Watson. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. H. 

An able and scholarly production. 
L. Friedlander. Darstellungen aus der Sittengeschichte Roms. 3 v. 

Lp. Hirzel. 
H. Schiller. Geschichte des romischen Kaisserreichs unter der 

Regieruug des Nero. Ber. Weidmann. 



HISTORICAL LITERATITRE AND ATITHORITIES. 313 

/. N. Madvig. Verfassung imd Verwaltung des romischen Staates. 
2 V. Lp. Teubner. 

P. Willems. Le Droit public remain. Louvain. 

These are the two best compendiums of Roman antiquities. 
E. Kuhn. Die stadtische und biirgerliche Verfassung des romis- 
chen Reichs bis auf die Zeiten Justinians. 2 v. Lp. Teubner. 

R. J. A. Houdoy. Le Droit Municipal. P. 1876. 

These two works treat of the municipal constitution : Kuhn 
from an historical, Houdoy from a legal point of view. 

/. Beloch. Der italische Bund. Lp. Teubner. 

Treats of the relation of Rome to the other Italian communities. 
B. Heisterbergk. Die Entstehung des Colonats. Lp. Teubner. 

Discusses the subject from an economical point of view. 

E. C. Clark. Early Roman Law. The Regal Period. Macm. 

James Hadley. Lectures on Roman Law. 

R. von Jhering. Der Geist des romischen Rechts. 3 v. Lp. 
Breitkopf and Hartel. 

F. C. Savigny. Geschichte des romischen Rechts im Mittelalter. 
7 V. Heidelberg. 

Orelli and Henzen. Inscriptionum Latinarum selectarum ampli- 
sima coUectio. 3 v. Turici [Zurich]. 

9. Medieval History. 

M. A. Geffroy. Rome et les barbares. P. Didier. 

A study upon the Germania of Tacitus. 
Charles Kingsley. The Roman and the Teuton. Macm. 

An interesting and suggestive course of lectures. 

G. Waltz. Deutsche Verfassungs Geschichte. 8 v. Kiel. Homann. 

The great standard work upon German constitutional history, 
reaching the twelfth century. 

P. Roth. Geschichte des Beneficialwesens. Erlangen. Palm. 

The most important work for the beginnings of Feudalism. 
R. Sohm. Altdeutsche Reiclis und Gerichtsverfassung. Weimai*. 
Bohlau. 

Treats of the constitution of the Frank Empire. 



314 SUPPLEMENT. 

P. E. Fahlbeck. La royaiite et le droit royal francs. Lund. 

The best sketch of the constitutional history of the early Mero- 
vingian period; agrees essentially with Sohm. 

E. Secretan. Essai sur la Feodalite. Lausanne. 

The most complete description of the Feudal System. 
H. G. Genyler. Germanische Rechtsdenkmaler. Erlangen. Dei- 
chert. 

A collection of illustrative extracts from documents, with a 

good introduction. 

Id. Deutsche Stadtrechts Alterthiimer. Erlangen. Deichert. 
A. Heusler. Der Ursprung der deutschen Stadtverfassung. Wei- 
mar. Bohlau. 

The best single treatise of a general nature. The best special 

work is perhaiJs: 

C. Hegel. Verfassungsgeschichte von Coin ini Mittelalter. Lp. 

Ilirzel. 
A. Wauters. Les libertes communales. Bruxelles. Lebegue. 

Treats of municipal institutions in northern France and Belgium. 
A. Kremer. Culturgeschichte des Orients unter den Chalifen. 2 v. 
Vienna. 

The best history of Mohammedan civilization. 

10. Ecclesiastical History. 

Count de Montalemhert. The Monks of the West : from St. Bene- 
dict to St. Bernard. 7 v. Ed. Blackwood. 
The best history of monasticism. 
A. H. Wratislaw. John Hus. Soc. 

Julius Kostlin. Life of Martin Luther. Scr. 

The best popular life of Luther; with contemporary illustrations. 
E. D. Mead. Martin Luther : A Study of Reformation. B. Ellis. 
W. Smith. Dictionary of Christian Biography. 3 v. Murray. 
Id. Dictionary of Christian Antiquities. 2 v. Murray [also 

Hartford. Burr. $7.00]. 
S. E. Herrick. Some Heretics of Yesterday. Houghton. 
Popular lectures; extend from Tanler to Wesley. 



HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 315 

11. HiSTOKY OF England, Etc. 

/. R. Green. The Conquest of England. H. 

Properly a continuation of "tlie Making of England," com- 
pleting the history of the Anglo-Saxon period. 

/. it. Seeley. The Expansion of England. R. 

Two courses of lectures of remarkable suggestiveness. 
Coote. The Romans in Britain. 

Devoted to establishing the survival of Roman institutions, etc. 
//. M. Scarth. Roman Britain. Soc. 

William Hunt. Norman Britain. Soc. 
Two valuable short treatises. 

/. S. Brewer. The Reign of Henry VIII. 2 v. $12.00. 

Papers written during the work of editing the documents be- 
longing to this reign. 

P. Friedmann. Anne Baleyn : A Chapter of English History. 
iry27-1536. 2 V. Macm. 

S. R. Gardiner. History of England. 1003-1042. 10 v. Longm. 

A revised and cheaper edition of his great work. 
.T. McCarthij. A History of the Four Georges. Vol. I. H. ^1.25. 

Reaches the year 1729. 
Id. Short History of Our Own Times. H. 

An abridgment of his larger work. 
J. H. McCarthy. Outline of Irish History. Baltimore. Murphy. 

Particularly good for the nineteenth century. 
Edio. Smith. Story of the English Jacobins. C. 

A popular account of the treason trials, etc., at the close of the 

eighteenth centuiy. 

R. B. Smith. Life of Lord Lawrence. 2 v. Scr. 

R. Schmidt. Die Gesetze der Angelsachsen. Lp. Brockhaus. 

The best edition of these laws, with a glossary. 
A. S. Cook. Extracts from the Anglo-Saxon Laws. Holt. 

The most important passages, in the original. 
W. Stubbs. Select Charters : Documents Illustrative of English 
History. Macm. 

A valuable selection of documents, with introduction; extends 

to Edward I. 



316 SUPPLEMENT. 

K. E. Digby. Introduction to the History of the Law of Real 
Property. 

An excellent treatise, with illustrative documents. 

F. Pollock. The Land Laws. Macm. , 

A good short history of these laws. 

12. History of France. 

L. Hdusser. Geschichte der franzbsischen Revolution. Bar. 
A course of lectures reported stenographically. 

A. Schmidt. Tableaux de la Revolution Fran<;aise. 

A valuable collection of documents, presenting a vivid picture 
of society during the revolution. 

/. F. Crane and S. J. Brun. Tableaux de la Revolution rran9aise. 

Put. 

An historical French reader. With an introduction by Pres. 
A. D. White. 

Sarah Tytler. Life of Marie Antoinette. [New Plutarch.] Put. 

K. HlUehrand. Geschichte Frankreichs von der Thronbesteigung 
Louis Philippes bis zuni Falle Napoleons IH. Gotha. 
The second volume reaches the year 1840. 

13. Special Histories. 

Geschichte der europaischen Staaten, edited by Heeren, Ukert, and 
Giesebrecht : Geschichte der Teutschen, by PJister, 5 v. ; der 
italienischen Staaten, by Leo, 5 v. ; des preussischen Staates, by 
Stenzel, 5 v. ; von Sachsen, by Bottiger, 2 v. ; von Spanien, by 
Lemhke and S chafer, 3 v. ; der Niederlande, by van Kampen, 2 v. ; 
Russland, by Strahl and Herrmann, 7 v. ; Schwedens, by Geijer 
and Carlson, 4 v. ; Englands, by Lappenberg and Pauli, 5 v. ; 
des osterreichischen Kaiserstaats, by Mailath, 5 v. ; Portugals, 
by S chafer, 5 v. ; Frankreichs, by Schmidt, 4 v. ; von Danemark, 
by Dahlmann, 3 v. ; Frankreichs, by Wachsmuth, 4 v. ; des 
osmanischen Reichs, by Zinkeisen, 8 v. ; Polens, by Ropell and 
Caro, 3 v. ; Deutschlands (1806-30), by Bulau. 



HISTORICAL LITEEATUIIE AND AUTHOIIITIES. 317 

W. Arnold. Deutche Urzeit. Gotlia, Perthes. 

A later volume brings the history down to the time of Charles 
the Great. A work of great value. 

G. Kaufmann. Deutsche Geschichte bis aiif Karl den Grossen. 
2 V. Lp. Duncker & Ilumblot. 

An excellent compendium of the present condition of knowledge 
W. von Giesebrecht. Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit. 5 v. 
Braunschweig. Schwetsclike. 

The best history of the empire; reaches the twelfth century. 
F. von Raumer. Geschichte der Hoheustaufen und ilirer Zeit. 6 v. 

A standard work of great literary merit. 
Konrad Maurer. Ishind von seiner ersten Entdeckung bis zum 
Untergange des Freistaates. Miinchen. 

By far the most valuable work upon the history of Iceland. 
0. Lorenz. Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen im Mittelalter. 2 v. 
Ber. Hertz. 

C. Muller. Der Kampf Ludwig des Baieru mit der rdniischen 
Curie. 2 v. Tubingen. 

E. Werunsky. Geschichte Kaiser Karls IV. und seiner Zeit. 
Innsbruck. 

T, Lindner. Geschichte des deutschen Reiches unter Konig Wen- 
zel. 3 V. Braunschweig. 

F. Krones. Handbuch der Geschichte Oesterreichs. 3 v. Ber. 
Grieben. 

F. Palacky. Geschichte v. Bohmen. -i v. (in several parts). Prag. 

By the great Bohemian historian ; the German view is given by 
L. Scldesinger. Geschichte Bohmens. Lp. Brockhaus. 
L. von Szalay. Geschichte Ungarns. 3 v. Pest. Lauifer. 

Reaches the close of the middle ages ; a brief complete history is 
M. Horvath. Kurzgefasste Geschichte Ungarns. Buda-Pest. 

Both of these are Hungarian works. The German view will be 

found in 
J. A. Fessler. Geschichte von Ungarn. 5 v. 
B. von Kdllay. Geschichte der Serben. 2 v. BudarPest. Lauifer. 

A good history of this important Slavonic people. 



318 SUPPLEMENT. 

Jos. von Hammer. Geschichte des osinanischen Reiches. 8 v. Pesth. 

The highest authority upon this history. 
Vulliemin. Ilistoire de la Suisse. 

The best history of Switzerland. 
F. Gregorovius. Geschichte der Stadt Rom im Mittelalter. 8 v. 
Stuttgart.' Cotta. $20.00. 

F. T. Perrens. Histoii-e de Florence. 6 v. Paris. 

The most important recent contribution to Italian history. 

G. Sartorius. Geschichte des liauseatischen Bundes. 2 v. Gottingen. 

An old work, but still the best on the subject. 

F. Wo)-ms. Histoire coinmerciale de la ligue hanseati(iue. P. 
Guillaumin. 

II. Tuttle. History of Prussia to the Accession of Frederick the 
Great. 1134-1740. Houghton. 

An interesting and scholarly work. 

F. Eherty. Geschichte des preussischen Staates. 7 v. Breslau. 
[to 1871]. 

J. G. Droysen. Geschichte der preussischen Politik. 2 v. Lp. 
Of the highest historical merit, but strongly absolutist. 

L. von Ranke. Memoirs of the House of Brandenburg. 3 v. L. 
Chiefly devoted to the history of the eighteenth century. The 
original work has been completely revised and re-written under 
the title " Zwolf Biicher ijreussischen Geschichte." 

C. F. V. Stalin. Wirtembergische Geschichte. 4 v. Stuttgart. 

Cotta. 

Regarded as one of the very best histories of a single state. 

A. Young. History of the Xetherlands. E. & L. 

A good short history ; chiefly of the 16th and 17th centuries. 
L. Vanderkindere. Le siecle des Artevelde. Bruxelles. licbegue. 
P. Fredericq. Le Role politique et social des dues de Bourgogne. 

Gand. Hoste. 
A. Gindely. History of the Thirty Years' War. 3 v. 

A popular work by the highest living authority. 
John L. Stevens. History of Gustavus Adolphus. Put. 
Carl van Noorden. Europaische Geschichte in achtzchuten Jahr- 
hundert : T. Der spanische Erbfolgekrieg. 3 v. Diisseldorf. 

The most important work upon the subject. 



HISTOKICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 319 

A. Schdfer. Geschichte des siebenjahrigen Kriegs. 2 v. B. 

Especially valuable in diplomatic history. 
C. B. Brackenhurij. Frederick the Great. [New Plutarch.] Put. 
F. W. Longman. Frederick the Great. [E.S.] Scr. 
L. Hdusser. Deutsche Geschichte voni Tode Friedrichs des Grossen 
bis zur Griindung des deutschen Bundes. 4 v. 
Learned, impartial, and graphic. 
Eugene Schuyler. Peter the Great. Scr. 

An excellent work ; handsomely illustrated. 
F. W. Horn. History of the Literature of the Scandinavian North. 

Ch. Griggs. 
W. E. Griffin. Corea, the Hermit Nation. Scr. 

14. Nineteenth Century. 

Staatengeschichte der neuesten Zeit, ed. by Baumgarten : France 
(1814-52), hj Rochau, 2 v.; England (since 1814), by Pauli, 3 
v.; Germany (19th. century), by Treitschke; Italy (modern 
period), by Reuchlin, 2 v.; Spain (since French Revolution), 
by Baumgarten, 3 v.; Austria (since 1809), by Springer, 2 v. ; 
Greece (since 1453), by Mendelssohn, 2 v.; Turkey (1826-52), 
by Rosen, 2 v. ; Russia (1814-31), by Bernhardi, 3 v. 

Baron Henry Worms. The Austro-Hungarian Empire (since 1866). 
L. 

C. Bulle. Geschichte der neuesten Zeit. 1815-71. 2 v. Lp. 

A work of great merit. 
Cesare Cantu. Les trente dernieres annees. (1848-78). P. 

The work of a Republican and Catholic. 
Th. Juste. La Revolution beige de 1830. 2 v. Bruxelles. 
W. Muller. Political History of Recent Times, 1816-75 (with 
appendix, 1876-81). H. 

Id. Politische Geschichte der Gegenwart. B. 

An annual publication of great merit. 
Count de Maupas. Story of the Coup d'Etat. App. 

D. M. Wallace. Egypt and the Egyptian Question. Macm. 



320 SUPPLEMENT. 

15. History of the United States. 

Arthur G'dman. History of the American People. Lothrop. fl.50. 

C. C. Jones. Histoiy of Georgia. Houghton. 

Gives special attention to the social history of the colony. 
American Commonwealths. Houghton. 

Oregon, by W. Barrows. 

Maryland, by William Hand Brotone. 

W. E. Foster. Stephen Hopkins, a Rhode Island Statesman ; a 
study in the political history of the eighteenth century. Provi- 
dence. Rider. 

Richard Markham. King Philip's War [Lesser Wars]. Dodd, 
Mead, & Co. 

C. W. Baird. History of the Huguenot Emigration to America. 
Dodd, Mead, & Co. |5.00. 

Works of John Smith. Birmingham. Edward Arber. 

Francis Parkman. Montcalm and Wolfe. 2 v. L. & B. 

Frederick Kapp. Life of John Kalb. Holt. 

E. J. Lowell. The Hessians and the other German Auxiliaries of 
Great Britain in the Revolutionary War. H. 

American Statesmen. Houghton. 
James Madison, by S. H. Gay. 

L. G. Tyler. Letters and Times of the Tylers. Richmond. Whittet. 

A series of pictures, from the Revolution to 1861. 
H. 0. Ladd. History of the Mexican War [Lesser Wars]. Dodd, 

Mead, & Co. 
Mrs. C. E. Cheney. Young Folks' History of the Civil War. E. & L. 
W. H. Seward. Diplomatic History of the Civil War in America. 

Houghton. ^3.00. 

Vol. III. of Seward's "Works. 
/. G. Blaine. Twenty Years of Congress, from Lincohi to Garfield. 

2 V. Norwich. 
Gen. E. D. Keyes. Fifty Years' Observations of Men and Events, 

Civil and Military. Scr. 



HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 321 

T. V. Cooper. American Politics. Ch. Brodix. 
A valuable collection of facts and documents. 
H. C. Adams. Taxation in the United States. (1789-1816.) 

Baltimore. 
Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical and Political 
Science. Edited by H. B. Adams. Baltimore. 

Chiefly devoted to the history of American institutions. 

See also Battles and Leaders of the Civil War, in the Century, 
1883-8i. 



PART II. 
BOOKS FOR COLLATERAL READING. 

Sir G. W. Cox. Tales of Ancient Gi'eece. Cli. Jansen. 
Miss Beesly. Stories from the History of Rome. Macm. 

A. J. Church. Stories of the Old World. Ginn, Heath, & Co. 

A selection from the several collections of classical tales. 
Id. Stories of the Persian War. Dodd, Mead, & Co. 
Id. Roman Life in Days of Cicero. Dodd, Mead, & Co. 
/. S. White. Herodotus for Boys and Girls. Put. 
Id. Plutarch for Boys and Girls. Put. 
Rosalie Kaufmann. Our Young Folks' Plutarch. Lip. 
W. Shepard. Our Young Folks' Josephus. Lip. .|2.50. 
R. Markham. Chronicle of the Cid. Dodd, Mead, & Co. 
E. C. Kindersley. History of the Good Knight, the Lord de Bayard. 

Dodd, Mead, & Co. 

These six books are large and handsomely illustrated. 
H. C. H. Calthrop. Paladin and Saracen [Tales from Ariosto]. 
Helen Zimmern. Tales from the Eddas. L. Swan. 
Lady Calcott. Little Arthur's History of England. N.Y. Crowell. 
Philips' Historical Readers. 1. Stories fi-om English History; 

2. Early England; 3. Middle England; 4. IModern England. 

B. School Supply Co. 
W. H. Rideing. Young Folks' History of Loudon. E. & L. 
Miss C. M. Yonge. Aunt Charlotte's Stories of American History. 

App. 

E. E. Hale. Stories of Discovery, told by Discoverers. R. -f 1.00. 

F. S. Drake. Lidian History for Young Folks. H. #3.00. 
Capt. Charles King. Famous and Decisive Battles of the World. 

Ph. McCurdy. 



HISTORY TOPICS. 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 

I. Oriental Period, to B.C. 500. 

1. Egypt and Palestine. — a. The Mediterranean system of 
lands, h. The valley of the Nile (with map), c. The early empire ; 
the 4th and 12th dynasties, d. The Hyksos. e. The 18th and 
19th dynasties. /. The 26th dynasty, g. The Hebrew monarchy. 
Solomon, B.C. 1000. li. The kingdoms of Israel and Judah. — i. The 
exodus of the Israelites, k. Ethiopia. — Map : The Mediterranean 
sea; the Orient; B.C. 1500. 

2. The Orient. — a. The Chaldean empire, b. The Assyrian 
empire, c. Babylon, d. Media, e. Asia Minor ; the kingdom of 
Lydia. f. Cyrus; the Persian empu-e. g. Darius Hystaspes ; 
B.C. 500. h. Phoenicia ; Tyre and Sidon. — i. Cyprus, h. Armenia. 
I. Cambyses in Egypt. — Map: B.C. 650 and 600. 

II. Grecian Period. B.C. 500-300. 

3. Greece. — a. The geography and races of Greece, h. The 
Greek colonies. c. The Spartan hegemony. d. The Persian 
invasion, e. The Athenian empire ; the age of Pericles. /' The 
Peloponnesian war. g. Epaminondas ; the hegemony of Thebes. 
h. Philip of Macedon. — i. The return of the Heraclidse. k. The- 
mistocles. I. The battle of Marathon ; of Salamis ; of Leuctra. 
m. The peace of Antalcidas, b.c. 387. — Map: Greece; the Orient; 
B.C. 500. 

4. The Macedonian Empire. — a. Alexander ; the conquest of 
Persia, b. The expedition to India, c. Greece after Alexander. 
d. The Achaean league, e. The kingdom of Pergamus. /. The 
Seleucidse ; the kingdom of Syria, g. The Ptolemies in Egypt ; 
Lagidse. h. The Parthian empire; Arsacidse. — i. The battle of 
Ipsus, B.C. 301. k. The J^tolian league. I. Agis and Cleomenes. 
— Map : B.C. 275. 



324 HISTORY TOPICS. 



III. Roman Period. B.C. 300 to Christian Era. 

5. Italy. — a. The geography and races of Italy. h. The 
Etruscans, c. Magna Graecia. d. Rome under the kings, e. The 
hegemony of Rome in Latium. f. The capture of Rome by the 
Gauls, B.C. 390. g. The Latin war, b.c. 340. h. The Samnite 
wars. i. The war with Pyrrhus. — k. The ^quians and Volscians. 
I. The conquest of Veil. m. The Caudine Forks ; B.C. 321. — 
Map : Italy ; b.c. 500 and 27.5. 

6. The Conquest of the "World. — a. Carthage and the First 
Punic war. h. The Second Punic war ; Hannibal, c. The Mace- 
donian wars. d. The war with Antiochus. e. The conquest of 
Spain. /. The wars of Pompey in the East. g. The conquest of 
Gaul. h. The Social war, b.c. 90. — i. The battle of Cannae ; 
of Cynoscephalse. k. The Ligurians. I. The Illyrians. m. The 
Numidians. n. The Maccabees. — Map : b.c. 200 and 100. List 
of the provinces in the order of their acquisition. 



IV. Roman Empire. The Christian Era to A.D. 500. 

7. The Early Empire. — a. The civil war of Caesar and Pompey. 
h. The Second Triumvirate, c. Augustus; the Empire; b.c. 27. 
d. The wars with the Germans, e. The conquest of Britain. /. The 
destruction of Jerusalem, a.d. 70. g. Trajan; a.d. 100. h. Mar- 
cus Aurelius, d. 180. — i. Relations with Parthia. k. Mauretania. 
I. The defeat of Varus by Arminius, a.d. 9. — Map: B.C. 27; 
a.d. 14 and 100. Genealogy of the family of Augustus. 

8. The Later Empire. — a. Septimius Severus ; a.d. 200. 

b. Diocletian; a.d. 300. c. Constantine the Great, d. 337. d. 
Honorius ; a.d. 400. e. The new Persian empu-e ; Sassanidae. 
/. Palymra; Zeuobia. g. The battle of Hadrianople, 378. li. The 
Alemanni. — i. Aurelian, d. 275. k. Julian the Apostate, d. 363. 
I. Theodosius the Great, d. 395. m. Constantinople. — Map : 
A.D. 350 and 400. 

9. The Migrations of the Barbarians. — a. The Visigoths 
(West Goths); Alaric, d. 412. b. The Vandals; Genseric, d. 477. 

c. The Bui'gundians. d. The Angles and Saxons, e. Attila and 



MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. 325 

the Huns. /. Odoacer ; the fall of the Empire, 476. g. Theodoric 
the Ostrogoth {East Goth), d. 526. h. The Lombards ; Alboin, .568. 
— i. Stilicho, d. 408. k. The battle of the Peoples (Chalons), 451. 
I. The Gepidfe. — Map : 420 and 476. List of the barbarian king- 
doms in the order of their settlement. 



MEDIiEVAL HISTORY. A.D. 500-1500. 
L The Frank Period. A.D. 500-900. 

10. The Merovingian House. — a. Clovis ; a.d. 500. h. Jus- 
tinian and his conquests, c. The Slavs and Avars, d. Pope 
Gregory the Great ; a.d. 600. e. Heraclius, d. 641. /. Mohammed 
and his successors, g. The Ommeyades, 661. h. Austrasia and 
Neustria. i. The hegemony of Northumbria. — k. Belisarius, d. 565. 
I. Penda of Mercia, d. 655. m. The Scots and Picts. — Map : 510 
and 565. 

11. The Carolingian House ; A.D. 752. — a. Pipin of Heristal ; 
A.D. 700. h. Leo the Isaurian, d. 741. c. The battle of Tours, 732. 
d. The kingdom of the Asturias. e. The Abassides, 750. /. Charles 
the Great ; a.d. 800. g. The treaty of Verdun, 843. h. The Nor-' 
mans. i. Alfred the Great ; a.d. 900. — k. The hegemony of Mercia. 
I. Egbert of Wessex, d. 836. m. Harold Haarfager, d. 936. n. The 
kingdom of Scotland. — Map : a.d. 750 and 843. Genealogy of the 
Carolingian house. 

IL Period of German Ascendency. A.D. 900-1250. 

12. The Saxon House; A.D. 919. — a. Otto the Great; em- 
peror, 962. b. The kingdom of Burgundy, c. The Capetian house, 
987. d. St. Stephen of Hunganj ; A.D. 1000. e. The Macedonian 
dynasty, f The Russian monarchy, g. The Fatimites in Egypt. 
h. The Danish conquest of England, 1016. — i. Gorm the Old of 
Denmark, d. 936. k. St. Olaf of Norway. /. The kingdom of Bul- 
garia, m. The Saracens in Sicily. — Map: a.d. 1000. Genealogy 
of the Saxon house. 



326 HISTORY TOPICS. 

13. The Franconian House ; A.D. 1024. — a. Henry IV. of Ger- 
many; a.d. 1100. b. Pope Gregory VII., d. 1086. c. The Norman 
conquest of England, 1066. d. The Norman conquests in Italy. 
e. Alfonso VI. of Castile, and the Cid. /. The Almoravides in Spain. 
g. The Seljukian Tm-ks. Ji. The first crusade, 1096. — i. Sancho 
III., the Great, of Navarre, d. 1035. k. The States of North Africa. 
I. The Concordat of Worms, 1122. — Map : The countries about the 
Mediterranean; a.d. 1100. Genealogy of the Franconian house. 

14. The Swabian House (Hohenstaufen) ; A.D. 1138. — 
a. A contest with the Welfs. b. The Lombard league, c. The 
kingdomof Sicily; 1130. (?. The third crusade, 1189. e. The fourth 
crusade, 1204. /. Pope Innocent III. : a.d. 1200. g. The house 
of Plantagenet ; 1154. h. The kingdom of Portugal ; 1139. — z. The 
Almohades in Spain, k. The second crusade, 1147. I. The mark 
of Brandenburg. ?n. The duchy of Austria, n. Henry the Lion. 
— Map: Germany; a.d. 1138; Em-ope; a.d. 1200. Genealogy of 
the Welfs. 

15. The Great Interregnum; A.D. 1250. — a. Frederic II., 
d. 1250. b. Rudolf of Ilapsburg, d. 1291. c. Ottocar II. of Bo- 
hemia, d. 1278. d. St. Louis of France, d. 1270. e. Fei'dinand III. 
of Castile, d. 1252. /. The Teutonic knights, g. The Albigensian 
crusade, h. Genghis Khan, d. 1227. — i. The seventh crusade, 1270. 
k. Iceland. — Map : Spain in 1050 and 1250. Genealogy of the 
Hohenstaufen. 

III. Period of French Ascendency. A.D. 1250-1.500. 

16. The Fourteenth Century, to 1328. — a. Philip IV., the 
Fair; a.d. 1300. b. The house of Anjou in Naples, c. Venice. 
d. Genoa, e. The Popes at Avignon. /. The independence of 
Scotland, g. The Swiss confederacy, h. Casimir the Great of 
Poland, d. 1370. i. Louis the Great of Hungary, d. 1382. — i-. The 
conquest of Wales. I. Henry VII. in Italy. ?«. Louis IV. and 
John XXII. — 3Iap : Germany ; a.d. 1300. Genealogy of the house 
of Anjou. 

17. The Hundred Years' War, to 1360. — a. The house of 
Valois. b. The treaty of Bretigny, 1360. c. The Jacquerie. 
d. The house of Luxembm-g in Germany, e. The house of Palas- 



MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 327 

ologus in Constantinople. /. The Ottoman Tui'ks. g. Tamerlane, 
d. 1405. h. The duchy of Milan. — i. Rienzi, the last of the tri- 
bunes, d. 1354. k. Stephen Dushan of Servia, d. 1356. — Map: 
France in the 14th century. Genealogy of the house of Valois. 

18. The Great Schism ; A.D. 1378. — a. The rival " obedi- 
ences," Rome and Avignon, h. The council of Constance, 1414. 

c. The Hussite wars. d. The civil wars of Armagnac and Bur- 
gundy, e. Henry IV. of England ; a.d. 1400. /. Joan of Arc, d. 
1431. g. The Hanseatic league, 1360. h. The union of Calmar, 
1397. — i. Philip van Artevelde, d. 1382. k. The battle of Agin- 
court, 1415. I. Pedro the Cruel of Castile, d. 1369. m. The battle 
of Nicopolis, 1396. — 3Iap : 1400. Genealogy of descendants of 
John II. of France. 

19. The Fifteenth Century, to 1483. — a. Louis XI., d. 1483. 

b. The duchy of Burgundy, c. Charles the Bold, d. 1477. d. The 
wars of the Roses. e. The capture of Constantinople, 1453. 
/. The revival of learning, g. The discovery of the East Indies. 
h. The invention of printing. — i. John Hunyady of Hungary, 

d. 1456. k. Scanderbeg, d. 1467. I. The kingmaker Earl of 
Warwick, d. 1471. — 3fap: The east of Europe. Genealogy of 
descendants of Edward HI. 

20. The End of the Middle Ages, to 1517. — a. Ferdinand 
and Isabella: a.d. 1500. b. The house of Aragon in Naples. 

c. The Italian expedition of Charles VIIL, 1494. d. Florence. 

e. The house of Tudor, 1485. /. The league of Cambrai, 1508. 
g. Ivan the Great of Russia, d. 1505. h. The discovery of Amer- 
ica, 1492. — i. Pope Alexander VI., d. 1.503. k. Francesco Sforza, 

d. 1466. I. Gonsalvo di Cordova, d. 1515. ?«. The Holy League, 
1512. — Map : Italy in the 15th century. Genealogy of Charles V. 
(his parents and grandparents). 



MODERN HISTORY. From 1500. 

I. Period of Religious Wars. 1.500-1650. 

21. The Reformation Period, 1517-55. — a. The Ladies' peace 
[of Cambrai], 1529. b. The peace of Cateau-Cambresis, 1559. 
c. The Schmalkaldic league, d. The peace of Augsburg, 1555. 



328 HISTORY TOPICS. 

e. The duchy of Prussia. /. The house of Austria, g. The knights 
of St. John. h. Gustavus Wasa; king, 152-3. — ?:. The battles of 
Marignano and Pavia. k. Tlie field of the cloth of gold, 1520. 
/. The sack of Rome, 1527. m. Andrea Doria, d. 1560. n. The 
seizure of the three bishoprics, 1552. o. The battle of Mohacs, 
1526. p. The duchy of Florence, 1531. — Map .- 1500. 

22. The Spanish Supremacy; to 1598. — a. The revolt of 
the Netherlands, 1572. b. The Invincible Armada, 1588, c. The 
Huguenot wars, 1562-72. d. The war of the Henries, 1585. 
e. The annexation of Portugal, 1580. /. Pope Sixtus V., d. 1590. 
g. Mary Queen of Scots, d. 1586. h. Henry IV. of France; a.d. 
1600. — ?. The battle of Lepanto, 1571. k. Sir Philip Sidney, d. 
1586. I. Alexander Farnese, Prince of Parma, d. 1592. m. Ivan 
the Terrible, d. 1584. n. The edict of Nantes, 1598. — Map of the 
Spanish possessions. Genealogy of the house of Tudor. 

23. The Thirty Years' War; to 1648. — a. The Cleve suc- 
cession, h. The war in Bohemia, c. Gustavus Adolphus, d. 1632. 
d. Wallenstein, d. 1634. e. The peace of Westphalia, 1648. /. Car- 
dinal Richelieu, d. 1642. g. The English revolution. /*. The house 
of Romanof. — i. The Donauworth affair, 1607. k. The indepen- 
dence of the Netherlands, 1609. I. The war with La Rochelle. 
m. The independence of Portugal, 1640. n. The colonization of 
America, o. Transylvania. — Map: 1648. 

II. Period of Dynastic Wars. 

24. The Age of Louis XIV.; to 1697.— a. Louis XIV.; 
A.D. 1700. b. The peace of the Pyrenees, 1659. c. The treaty of 
Nymwegen, 1678. d. The treaty of Ryswick, 1697. e. The Eng- 
lish revolution of 1688. /. Frederick William, the Great Elector, 
d. 1688. g. The treaty of Oliva, 1660. h. The treaty of Carlo- 
witz, 1699. — {. The invasion of the Netherlands, 1672. k. The 
devastation of the Palatinate, 1688. I. The triple alliance; Sir 
William Temple, 1668. 7n. John Sobieski, d. 1696. n. The war 
of the Fronde. — 3Iapj: The countries about the Baltic, 1660. 
Genealogy of the house of Stuart. 

25. The Eighteenth Century; to 1763. — a. The treaty of 
Utrecht, 1713. b. The pragmatic sanction, c. The treaty of Aix- 



MODERN HISTORY. 329 

la-Chapelle, 1748. d. The treaties of Paris and Ilubertsburg, 170:3. 
e. Charles XII. of Sweden, d. 1718. /. Peter the Great of Russia, 

d. 1725. g. Frederick the Great of Prussia, d. 1786. h. The 
English empire in India. — i. Cardinal Alberoni, d. 1752. Jc. The 
quadruple alliance. /. The family compact. in. The treaty of 
Vienna, 1738. n. The treaty of iSTystadt, 1721. o. The kingdom 
of Prussia, 1701. p. The kingdom of Sardinia, 1720. — Maj^ : The 
east of Europe, 1750. Genealogy of the Spanish succession. 

III. Revolutionary Period. 

26. The French Revolution; to 1799. — a. The first parti- 
tion of Poland, 1772. h. The national assembly, 1789. c. The 
declaration of Pilnitz, 1791. d. The legislative assembly, 1791. 

e. The national convention, 1792. /. The first coalition, 1793. 
g. The second and third partitions of Poland, 1793 and 1795. 
h. The peace of Basle, 1795. — i. Count Mirabeau, d. 1791. k. The 
battle of Valmy, 1792. I. The American revolution, m. Cather- 
ine II. of Russia, d. 1796. — il/cr/j; Europe in 1789. Genealogy of 
the house of Romanof . 

27. The Wars of Napoleon; to 1815. — a. Napoleon Bona- 
parte; A.D. 1800. h. The armed neutrality, 1800. c. The treaty 
of Luneville, 1801. d. The peace of Presburg, 1805. e. The con- 
federation of the Rhine, 1806. /. The peace of Tilsit, 1807. 
g. The peace of Schoubrunn, 1809. h. The peace of Vienna, 1815. 

— i. The duchy of Warsaw and kingdom of Poland, k. Xapoleon's 
continental system. I. The French annexations in their order. 

— Map: 1800; 1810. 

28. The Period of Peace, 1815-1848. — a. The holy alliance, 
1815. h. The French revolution of 1830. c. The kingdom of 
Belgium, 1831. d. The kingdom of Greece, 1831. e. The extin- 
guishment of Poland, 1831. /. Mehemet Ali, d. 1849. g. The 
war of the Sonderbund, 1846. — h. The opium war, 1840. i. The 
Afghan war, 1839-41. k. The French occupation of Algiers, 1830. 
I. Prince Metternich, d. 1859. — Map: Europe in 1820. Geneal- 
ogy of the Bourbons. 

29. The Second Empire; to 1870. — a. The French revolu- 
tion of 1848. h. The Hungarian revolution, c. The Crimean 



330 HISTORY TOPICS. 

war, 1854. d. The Sepoy revolt, 1857. e. The Italian war, 1859. 
/. The Schleswig-Holstein war, 1864. g. The seven weeks' war, 
1866. h. Count Cavour, d. 1801. i. The revolution in Rome. 
k. The revolution in Venice. I. The Greek revolution, 1862. 
m. The Mexican empire, 1803. — Map: Italy in 1850 and 1870. 

30. The German Empire. — «. The Franco-Pi-ussian war, 1870. 
h. Prince Bismarck, c. The Turko-Russian war, 1876. d. The 
Afghan war, 1878. e. The Greek question. /. The Spanish 
republic, 1873. g. The Egyptian troubles, 1882.—/*. The Abys- 
sinian war, 1867. i. The Zulu war, 1878. k. The French in 
Tunis, 1881. I. The Dalmatian revolt, 1882. — Map: Germany in 
1860, 1866, and 1871. 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



Introduction. 



1. The Discovery of America. — a. The fifteenth century; 
formation of States, h. Tlie renaissance, c. The great discover- 
ies and inventions, d. Commerce with the East in the middle ages. 
e. The Portugiiese navigators. /. The voyages of Columbus. 
g. The Cabots. 

2. Relation of American to European History. — a. 16th 
cent. ; rivalry between Spain, France, and England. I. 17th 
cent.; ascendency of France and Holland, c. Thirty years' war; 
rise of Sweden, d. The Puritan revolution in England, e. The 
revolution of 1688. /. 18th cent. ; rivalry of France and England. 
g. The French encyclopaedists. h. Reaction of America upon 
Europe, i. Federalist and republican sympathies. 

3. Spanish Explorations and Colonies -within the Limits of 
the United States. — a. De Soto's expedition, 1539. h. Coro- 
nado's expedition, 1510. c. Cabrillo's expedition, 1542. d. ex- 
plorations and settlements in Florida. 

4. French Settlements in North America. — a. Cartier's 
discoveries, h. The Huguenots in Carolina, c. The settlement 
of Acadia, 1604. d. Champlain's discoveries and settlements, 
e. The discovery of the Mississijijii, 1G73. 



AlVIERICAif HISTOKY. 331 



Period of Colonization. 1607-1G88. 

5. Virginia and Maryland. — a. The London conpany and 
the Virginia charter, h. Tlie Maryland grant, c. The govern- 
ment of Virginia, d. Bacon's rebellion, 1676. e. The controversy 
withClayborne. /. The nature of proprietary government, g. The 
Puritan revolution in Maryland. 

6. The Dutch Colonies. — a. The Dutch land grants. I. The 
Jerseys. c. The Pennsylvania boundary. d. Xew Sweden. 
e. The controversy with Connecticut. /. The nature of the 
royal province. 

7. New England. — a. Patents and charters in New England. 
h. The settlement of ^Massachusetts bay. c. The nature of charter 
government, d. Territorial history of Maine and New Hampshire. 
e. The New England confederacy. /. The Indian wars. g. The 
Quakers in INIassachusetts. h. The blue laws of Connecticut. 

8. The Southern Colonies. — a. Locke's plan of government. 
b. The colonization of Georgia, c. The Huguenot refugees. 

9. Chronological Review of the Period. — a. Order of settle- 
ment of the colonies, h. Map of the colonies in 1688. c. History 
of relia."ious toleration. 



Period of Colonial Life. 1688-1763. 

10. New France and Florida. — a. Extent of French and 
Spanish occupation. I. Wars of Count Frontenac. c. The North 
American Indians. 

11. The Revolution of 1688. — a. The new charter of ISIassa- 
chusetts. h. Leisler's rebellion, c. Salem witchcraft, d. Sir 
Edmund Andros. 

12. King William's and Queen Anne's Wars. — a. The war 
of the Spanish succession, h. The treaty of Utrecht, 1713. c. Sir 
William Phips, d. 169.5. d. The changes in colonial government. 

13. Wars of George II. — a. The seven years' war. h. The 
treaty of Paris, 1703. c. Hostilities in 1754 and 1755. d. The 
campaign of 1758. e. The conquest of Canada. /. Franklin's 
plan of union, 1754. g. The conspiracy of Pontiac, 1763. 



332 HISTORY TOPICS. 

14. Review of the Period. — a. Map of the colonies in 1763. 
6. Nationalities in the colonies, c. Education, d. Industry. 
e. Slavery. /. Literature, g. Church organizations. 

Revolutionary Period. 1763-1789. 

1.5. 1763 to 1770. — a. The navigation acts and writs of assist- 
ance, b. The stamp act, 1765. c. The congress of 1765. d. Acts 
of Grafton's administration, in relation to America, e. Troubles 
in New York. /. Affairs in the South, g. The British adminis- 
trations, h. James Otis, d. 1783. 

16. 1770 to 1774. — a. Lord North's financial acts and the 
Boston tea-party, b. The acts of parliament of 1774. c. The 
Continental congress of 1774. d. The Boston massacre, March ,5, 
1770. e. The burning of the Gaspe, June 10, 1772. /. Patrick 
Henry, d. 1799. g. Samuel Adams, d. 1803. 

17. 1775. — a. The acts of congress, b. Hostilities down to 
June. c. The battle of Bunker Hill, June 17. d. The expedition 
to Canada, e. George Washington, d. 1799. 

18. 1776. — a. Acts of independence and union, b. The siege 
of Boston, c. Military operations about New York. (Z.Washing- 
ton in New Jersey, e. The military organization. 

19. 1777. — a. Burgoyne's expedition, b. The occupation of 
Philadelphia, c. The opei'ations in the South, 1774-77. d. The 
Conway cabal, e. The finances of the war. /. The treaty with 
France, Feb. 6, 1778. g. Benjamin Franklin, d. 1790. 

20. 1778 and 1779. — a. The battle of Monmouth, June 28, 
1778. h. Sullivan's expedition against the Six Nations, 1778. c. The 
expedition of George Rogers Clark, 1779. d. The captui-e of Stony 
Hook, July 15, 1779. e. The operations about Savannah. /. John 
Paul Jones, d. 1792. 

21. 1780. — a. The battle of Camden, August 16. b. The battle 
of King's Mountain, October 7. c. The capture of Charleston, 
May 12. d. Arnold's treason. 

22. 1781. — a. The battle of Cowpens, January 17. b. Greene's 
retreat, and the battle of Guilford, March 25. c. Campaign of 
Gen. Greene after Guilford, d. Campaign of Lord Cornwallis. 
€. The siege of Yorktown. /. Marquis Lafayette, d. 1834. 



AMERICAlf HISTORY. 333 

23. Close of the "War. — a. The armed neutrality, h. The 
treaty of peace, c. The Newburgh addresses, d. The formation 
of state governments, e. The cession of the public lands. 

24. The Confederacy, 1781-89. — a. The articles of confeder- 
ation, b. The financial troubles, c. Shay's rebellion, d. The 
ordinance of 1787. e. The formation of the constitution. 

25. The Constitution. — a. The distinctive features of the 
constitution. h. The establishment of the new government. 
c. Settlement and early history of Kentucky, d. The Vermont 
controversy, e. Formation of state government in Tennessee. 

26. Review of the Period. — a. Hamilton's theory of govern- 
ment, h. Madison's theory of government, c. Luther Martm's 
theory of government, d. Party divisions at the close of the 
period. 

Period of the Republic. 1789-1876. 
I. Foreign Relations, to 1820. 

27. Washington's First Administration, 1789-93. — a. The 
amendments to the constitution, h. The legislation of the first 
congress, c. Hamilton's financial policy, d. The Indian troubles. 
e. A permanent .seat of government. 

28. "Washington's Second Administration, 1793-97. — 
a. Jay's treaty, 1795. h. The French complications, c. The 
whiskey insurrection, 1794. d. Washington's farewell address. 
e. Alexander Hamilton, d. 1804. 

29. John Adams' Administration, 1797-1801. — a. The war 
with France, h. The alien and sedition acts. c. The Virginia 
and Kentucky resolutions, d. The presidential election of 1800-1. 
e. The schism in the Federalist party ; the Essex junto. 

30. Jefferson's First Administration, 1801-5. — a. The pur- 
chase of Louisiana, 1803. h. The war with Tripoli, 1801. c. The 
north-western territory, d. The amendment to the constitution. 

31. Jefferson's Second Administration, 1805-9. — a. Burr's 
conspiracy, 1806. h. Relations with France and England, c. The 
embargo, 1807. 

32. Madison's First Administration, 1809-13. — a. Causes 



334 HISTORY TOPICS. 

of the war of 1812. b. The Indian hostilities; Tecumseh. 
c. Naval operations in 1812. d. Hull's surrender, August 16. 

33. Madison's Secozid Administration, 1813-17. — a. Cam- 
paigns on the northern frontier, b. Military operations in 1814. 

c. Jackson's campaigns in the South. d. Naval operations. 
e. The attack upon ^Vashington and Baltimore. /. The Hart- 
ford convention, 1814. g. The treaty of Ghent, Dec. 24, 1814. 
h. The war with Algiers, 1815. 

34. Monroe's Administration, 1817-25. — a. The Missouri 
compromise, b. The purchase of Florida, 1819. c. The Semi- 
nole war. d. The settlement of the northern boundary. 

35. Review of the Period. — a. The era of good feeling. 
b. The bank of the United States, c. Tariff legislation until 1815. 

d. Foreign relations, e. Slavery and the slave-trade. 

II. Economic Qukstions, to 1845. 

36. John Quincy Adams' Administration, 1825-29. — a. The 

Panama congress and the Monroe doctrine, b. Georgia and the 
Creek Indians, c. The tariff of 1828. 

37. Jackson's First Administration, 1829-33. — a. Nulli- 
fication, b. The anti-Mason party, c. Black-hawk's war, 1832. 
d. The "kitchen cabinet." e. John C. Calhoun, d. 1850. 

38. Jackson's Second Administration, 1833-37. — a. The 
removal of the deposits, b. the anti-slavery movement, c. The 
farewell address, d. The Seminole war. e. The French spolia- 
tion claims. 

39. Van Bur en's Administration, 1837-41. — a. The sub- 
treasury, b. The crisis of 1837. c. The repudiation movement. 
(/. The affair of the Caroline. 

40. Harrison and Tyler's Administrations, 1841^5. — a. The 
Webster-Ashbm-ton treaty, 1842. b. The tariff of 1842. c. The 
annexation of Texas, 1845. d. Dorr's rebellion, 1842. e. The 
Mormon troubles in Illinois, 1844. /. Daniel Webster, d. 1852. 

III. The Slavery Controversy, to 187G. 

41. Polk's Administration, 1845-49. — a. The campaigns of 
the Mexican war. b. The occupation of the Pacific coast, c. The 



AMERICAN HISTORY. 335 

treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo, 1848. d. The north-western bound- 
ary, e. The tariff of 1846. /. The "Wibnot proviso. 

42. Taylor and Fillmore's Administrations, 1849-53. — 
a. The omnibus bill, 1850. b. The free-soil i)arty. c. The fugi- 
tive-slave law. d. The Japan expedition, e. The correspond- 
ence of Webster and Hiilsemann . /. Henry Clay, d. 1852. g. The 
Cuban filibusters. 

43. Pierce's Administration, 1853-57. — a. The Nebraska 
bill, 1854. b. The know-nothing party, c. The Gadsden pux-- 
chase. d. Diplomatic relations with Great Britain, e. The Ostend 
manifesto. 

44. Buchanan's Administration, 1857-61. — o. The Kansas 
question, h. The Dred Scott decision, 1857. c. The personal- 
liberty bills, d. The Mormons in Utah. e. The acts of secession. 
/. John Bvovra, d. 1859. 

45. Lincoln's Administration;, to July, 1862. — a. The pen- 
insular campaign, h. Operations in the West until Shiloh. c. The 
capture of New Orleans, d. The Merrimac and Monitor, e. The 
arrest of Mason and Slidell. f. The national bank system. 
g. The policy towards slavery, h. The constitution of the Con- 
federacy, i. Operations on the seaboard. 

46. Lincoln's Administration; July 1862, to Jan. 1864. — 

a. Pope's campaign, i. McClellan's Antietam campaign, c. Fred- 
ericksbm-g and Chaucellorsville. d. Mm-freesboro'. e. Gettys- 
burg. /. The opening of the Mississippi, g. Chickamauga and 
Chattanooga, h. The emancipation proclamation. 

47. Lincoln's Administration, 1864-65. — a. Grant's cam- 
paign in Virginia, b. Sherman's campaign in the South, c. Hood's 
advance into Tennessee, d. The Shenandoah campaign, e. The 
Confederate cruisers, f. The policy towards the seceded states. 
g. The sanitary commission. 7/. The Freedmen's Bureau. 

48. Johnson's Administration, 1865-69. — a. Reconstruction. 

b. The impeachment of the president, 1868. c. The purchase of 
Alaska, 1867. d. The constitutional amendments. 

49. Grant's Administration, 1869-77. — a. The Santo Do- 
mingo treaty, 1870. b. The resumption of specie payments, c. The 
Geneva congress, 1872. d. The Credit Mobilier. 



336 HISTOKY TOPICS. 

50. Review of the Period. — a. The tariff question, h. The 
slavery controversy, c. The public lands, d. The Indian policy. 
e. The civil service, f. The Pacific railroad, g. The fisheries. — 
Maps : 1688, 1763, 1783, 1803, 1820, 1850, 1876. List of the states 
admitted to the union, with dates. List of the vice-presidents, 
with state, full name, and date. List of the secretaries of state, 
with same. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CHURCH HISTORY. 



CO]^TEE"TS. 



PAGE. 

I. Introductory 343 

11. General Church History 344 

A. Eastern. 

1. Armenian 344 

2. Coptic 344 

3. Georgian 344 

4. Graeco-Russian 344 

5. Nestorian 345 

6. Syrian 345 

B. Western. 

1. Nortli African 345 

2. European 345 

III. Early Christianity 350 

1. General 350 

2. Catacombs 354 

3. Charity 355 

4. Controversies and Heresies 355 

6. Patristics 355 

6. Persecutions 355 

IV. Medieval Christianity 356 

1. General 356 

2. Celibacy of the Clergy 357 

3. Crusades 357 

4. Lollards 357 

5. Myths 358 

6. Waldenses 358 



340 CONTENTS. 

PAGE. 

V. Modern Christianity .... 358 

1. General Histories of the Reformation Period 358 

2. The Roman Catholic Church 360 

I. General 360 

II. The Inquisition 361 

III. Jansenists 361 

IV. Jesuits 361 

V. Port Royalists 361 

VI. Ultramontanism and Vaticanism 362 

3. Old Catholics 362 

4. Modern Ecclesiastical History, by Countries 362 

I. Bohemia 362 

II. England 362 

A. The Church of England established by Law 362 

B. Dissenters 363 

III. France 364 

IV. Germany 365 

V. Holland 365 

VI. Hungary 365 

VII. Ireland 365 

VIII. Italy 365 

IX. Poland 365 

X. Scandinavia 366 

XI. Scotland 366 

XII. Spain 366 

XIII. Switzerland 366 

XIV. United States of America 366 

A. General 366 

B. Denominational 367 

VI. Special Topics 371 

1. Art 371 

2. Biography 372 

A. Biblical 372 

I. Lives of Christ 372 

II. Lives of Apostles 373 

B. General 374 

I. Collections 374 

II. Individual 375 



CONTENTS. 341 

VI. Special Topics — Continued. page. 

3. Church and State 377 

4. Councils 377 

5. Creeds ■. 378 

0. Doctrines 378 

7. Fiction 379 

8. Liturgies 381 

9. Martyrs 382 

10. Miracle Plays and Mysteries 382 

11. Missions 382 

12. Monastic Orders 383 

13. Rationalism 383 

14. Reference Books 383 

15. Sacred Seasons 385 

16. Symbolism 385 

Appendix 386 

Index to Authors 387 



LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS. 



App. for Appleton ; B., for Boston ; Ber., for Berlin ; C, for 
Cassell; C. & H., for Chapman & Hall; Ch., for Chicago; E. & L., 
for Estes & Lauriat; Ed., for Edinburgh; H., for Harper; L., for 
London ; Lip., for Lippincott ; Longm., for Longmans ; Lp., for 
Leipsic ; L. & B., for Little, Brown, & Co. ; L. & S., for Lee & 
Shepard ; M., for Murray ; Macm., for Macmillan ; 0., for Osgood ; 
P., for Paris; Ph., for Philadelphia; Put., for Putnams; R., for 
Roberts ; Scr., for Scribner ; S. & E., for Smith, Elder, & Co. ; 
W. & N., for Williams & Norgate. E.S. stands for Epochs Series 
(Scribner) ; and Soc.^ for Society for the Diffusion of Christian 
Knowledge (Young). 



A Select Bibliography of Ecclesiastical 
History.' 



By JOHN ALONZO TISHER, 

Graduate Student of Church History and Philosophy at 
Johns Hopkins University. 



I. INTRODUCTORY. 

Crooks, G. R., and Hurst, J. F. Theological Encyclopaedia and 
Methodolog3^ Based on Hagenbach. 8vo. pp. 596. N.Y. 
Phillips & Hunt. 1884. ^4.00. 

An admirable introduction to all departments of theological study. 
It contains valuable bibliographies, German and English. 

Dowling, John G. An Introduction to the Critical Study of Ecclesi- 
astical History, attempted in an account of the progress, and a 
short notice of the sources of the history of the church. L. 
1838. 

Hitchcock, R. D. The True Idea and Uses of Church History. 
N.Y. 1856. 

Newton. J. Review of Ecclesiastical History, etc. Works, p. 369 
(pp. 88). 

Schaff, Philip. General Introduction to Church History, Bibli- 
otheca Sacra, v. 6, 1849, p. 409 (pp. 33) ; and Progress of Church 
History as a Science, Bib. Sac, v. 7, 1850, p. 54 (pp. 37). 

Id. What is Church History? A vindication of the idea of histori- 
cal development. r2mo. pp. 128. Ph. Lip. 1846. 

Smith, H. B. Nature and Worth of the Science of Church History. 
Andover. 1851. In Bil). Sac, v. 8, 1851, p. 412 (pp. 30). 

1 For abbreviations, see opposite page. 



344 A SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY OF 

Smyth, Egbert C. Value of the Study of Church History in Minis- 
terial Education. A lecture delivered to the senior class of 
Andover Theological Seminary, pp. 31. Andover. Draper- 
1874. Paper, 25 cents. 

Of practical value to pastors. 
Stanley, A. P. Three Introductory Lectures on the Study of Eccle- 
siastical History. 8vo. Oxford. J. H. & J. Parker. 1857. 
Republished as an introduction to the American edition of the 
author's History of the Eastern Church. 1861. N.Y. : Scr., 
1867. Scribner, Armstrong, & Co., 1873, |2.50. 

Compare the introductory pages of tlie church histories by the 
Roman Catholic writers Fleury, Mohler, Alzog, DoUinrjer, and 
Ilergeiirother, and the Protestant writers Mosheim, Schroeckh, 
Gieseler, Hase, Niedner, Kurtz, and Schaff. 



11. GENERAL CHURCH HISTORY. 

A. Eastern. — 1. Armenian. 

Davis, (Mrs.) Tamar. A General History of the Sabbatarian 
Chui-ches. Embracing accounts of the Armenian, East Indian, 
and Abyssinian Episcopacies. 8vo. pp. 255. Ph. Lindsay & 
Blakistou. 1851. 

2. Coptic. 

Malan, S. C. A Short History of the Copts and of their Church. 
12mo. pp. 115. L. Niitt. 1873. 2s. M. 

3. Georgian. 

Joselan, P. A Short History of the Georgian Church. Translated 
from the Russian, and edited with additional notes by S. C. 
Malan. 8vo. L. Saunders. 1865. $1.50. 

4. Grceco-Russian. 

Neale, J. M. A History of the Holy Eastern Church, the Patri- 
archate of Antioch, etc. Edited, with an introduction, by 
George Williams. 8vo. L. 1873. $5.00. 



ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 345 

Stanley, A. P. Lectures on the History of the Eastern Church. 
L. & N. Y., 1862. N.Y. : Scribner, Armstrong & Co., 1873. |2.50. 
Contains three introductory lectures on Church history. These 
lectures were delivered at Oxford. Not a continuous and exhaustive 
history, but, like all of Dean Stanley's writings, fascinating and 
scholarly. The sections on the Arian controversy are, according 
to Dr. Schaff, who also criticizes Stanley's omission to discuss the 
Xestorian and the other Christological controversies of the Eastern 
Church, "more brilliant than solid." 

5. Nestorian. 

Badger, Geo. Percy. The Nestorians and their Rituals. Illustrated 
(with colored plates). 2 v. L. 1852. 

6. Syrian. 

Wortabet, John. Researches into the Religions of Syria ; or, Sketches, 
Historical and Doctrinal, of its Religious Sects. 8vo. L. Nis- 
bet. 1860. 

Cf . paper by II. H. Jessup in Proceedings of the Sixth Session of the 

Evangelical Alliance. N.Y. H. 1874. 



B. Western. — 1. North African. 

Lloyd, Julius. The North African Church. 8vo. With map. L. 
Soc. 1880. 3s. M. 

2. European. 

Allen, Joseph Henry. Christian History in its Three Great Periods. 
16mo. 3v. B. R. $1.25 each. 
Convenient; liberal; readable. 
Alzog, John. A Manual of Universal Church History. Translated 
from the ninth enlarged and improved German edition, and 
edited and brought down to the present time, by F. J. Pabisch 
and Thomas S. Byrne. 3 v. I. Early Chm'ch History ; II. The 
Middle Ages; III. To the Present Time. 8vo. Cincinnati. 
Clarke & Co. $15.00. 

At once the latest and the highest Roman Catholic authority. 
" Alzog aims to be the Roman Catholic Hase as to brevity and 



846 A SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY OF 

condensation. . . . The American translators censure the French 
translators for the liberties they have taken with Alzog, hut they 
have taken similar liberties, and, by sundry additions, made the 
author more Romish than he was." — P. Schaff. 

Arnold, Matthew. St. Paul and Protestantism; with an Introduc- 
tion on Puritanism and the Church of England. 12mo. N.Y. 
1875. $1.75. L. Smith, Elder, & Co. 4s. Qd. 
Blackburn, W. M. History of the Christian Church, from its 
Origin to the Present Time. 8vo. pp. 719. Cincinnati. 
Hitchcock & Walden. 1879. $2..50. 

Comprehensive and convenient. By a Presbyterian. 
Dollinger, John Joseph Ignatius. Manual of Church History. 
Translated from Dr. Dollinger's unfinished Handbook of Chris- 
tian Church History, 1833, and Manual of Church History, 183G, 
by Ediv. Cox. 4 v. 8vo. pp. 287, 375, 351, 245. L. Dolman. 
1840-42. 

This work extends to the Reformation. Dr. Dollinger, since 1870 

the leader of the Old Catholic movement, is the most learned Roman 

Catholic historian of the niueteenth century. 

Gieseler, John C. L. Text-Book of Church History. 5 v. Bonn. 

1824-56. Fourth edition, 1844 sqq. " Translated into English 

first by Cunningham, Ph., 1846 ; then by Davidson and Hall in 

England; and last and best, on the basis of the former, by 

Henry B. Smith. 5 v. N.Y. H. 1857-80. The fifth and last 

volume of this edition was completed after Dr. Smith's death 

(1877) by Prof. Stearns and Miss Mary A. Robinson, with an 

introductory notice by Philip Schaff. " Vols. 1, 2, 3, and 4, 

12.25 each ;* vol. 5, SJiS.OO. 

"Profoundly learned, acute, calm, impartial, conscientious, but 
cold and dry." — P. Schaff. " The standard complete history of 
the church." — W. F. Allen. The great merit of this work is its 
wealth of choice extracts from tlie original authorities. It is gener- 
ally considered the best of all the text-books ou church history. 
Guericke, H. E. F. Handbook, etc. Translated, in part, by W. G. 
T. Shedd. 8vo. 2 v. pp. xvi, 433 ; pp. viii, 160. Andover. 
Draper. 1857 and 1870. Vol. I. (to a.d. .590), $2.75; Vol. H. 
(to A.D. 1073), $1.25. 

The tone of the book is that of a Lutheran polemic. 



ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 347 

Hardwick, Charles. A History of the Christian Church. 2 v. 12mo. 
Vol. I. : Middle Ages, with maps constructed for the work by 
A. Keith Johnson. Vol. II. : The Ileformation. 12mo. Cam- 
bridge and London. 1861-65. p.OOpervol. 

Written for students by a representative of the Churcli of England. 

Hase, Charles. A History of the Christian Church. Translated 

from the seventh and much improved German edition, by C. E. 

Blumenthal^^^^C.P.Wing. 8vo. N.Y. 18.55; 1870. #3-50. 

Since the publication of the translation, the German work has been 

revised. Condensed, skilfully arranged, and well written. 

Hurst, J. F. Outlines of Church History. N.Y. Philips & Hunt. 

1884. 50 cents. 

Kurtz, John Henry. Text-Book of Ch. Hist. Tr. from the German. 

8vo. 2v. pp. .531, 454. Ph. Lindsay & Blakiston. 1861-62. 

9th ed., thoroughly revised and partly rewritten. 1885. $3.00. 

Concise. By an Evangelical professor in the University of Dorpat. 

Vol. 1 is a revised reprint of Edersheim's Edinb. ed.; Vol. 2 is an 

original translation by J. H. A. Bamberger, aided by John Beck. 

Lawrence, Ewjene. Historical Studies. 8vo. pp. 508. N.Y. H. 
1876. Contents: The Bishops of Rome; Leo and Luther; 
Loyola and the Jesuits ; Ecumenical Councils ; The Vaudois ; 
The Huguenots ; The Church of Jerusalem ; Dominic and the 
Inquisition ; The Conquest of Ireland ; The Greek Church. 
Protestant. Clear, strong, and accurate. 
Lea, Henrij C. Studies in Church History: The Rise of the 
Temporal Power; Benefit of Clergy; Excommunication. 8vo. 
pp. xiii, 518. Ph. H.C.Lea. 1869. $2.50. 
Milman, H. H. History of Latin Christianity ; including that of 
the Popes to the Pontificate of Nicholas V. 8 v. 12mo. pp. 
554, 551, 525, 555, 530, 539, 570, 561. N.Y. Armstrong & Son. 
1881. $14.00. 

Of great value alike to students and to general readers. See under 
Mediaeval Christianity. 
Milner, Josepli. History of the Church of Christ. L. 1794-1812. 
New corrected edition, 4 v., 1847, I860, etc. L. 1875. 18s. 
Pietistic; neitlier scliolarly nor polemic. 



348 A SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY OF 

Mosheim, John Lawrence. Institutes of Ecclesiastical History, 
Ancient and Modern. A new and literal translation from the 
original Latin, with copious additional notes, original and 
selected, by James Murdoch. 3 v., fifth edition, N.Y., 1854; 
3 V. in one,' 8vo, pp. 470, 485, 506. N.Y. Carter & Bros. 1881. 
$5.00. (There is a translation by A. Maclaiiie. N.Y. H. 
$4.00.) 

The distinguished author, a moderate Lutheran, is "the father of 
church historiography as an art, unless we i^refer to concede this 
merit to Bossuet." Skilful, clear, impartial. Mosheim wrote in 
unrivalled Latin. He died in 1755. 

Neander, J. Augustus W. General History of the Christian Religion 
and Church. Translated from the second improved German 
edition by Joseph Torry. 5 v., 8vo, Boston, 1854 ; also, 8 v., 
12mo, L. & N.Y., 1861. Twelfth edition : B. Houghton. 1881. 
$18.00. 

This well-known history is " distinguished for thorough and con- 
scientious use of the sources, critical research, ingenious combina- 
tion, tender love of truth and justice, evangelical catholicity, hearty 
piety, and by masterly analysis of the doctrinal systems and the 
subjective Christian life of men of God in past ages. . . . The poli- 
tical and artistic sections, and the outward machinery of history, 
were not congenial to the humble, guileless simplicity of Neander. 
His style is monotonous, involved, and diffuse, but unpretending, 
natural, and warmed by a genial glow of sympathy and enthusi- 
asm." — P. ScHAFF, his pupil. 

Newman, John Henry. Essays Critical and Historical. 2 v., with 
notes. Poetry ; Rationalism ; De la Mennais ; Palmer on Faith 
and Unity ; St. Ignatius ; Prospectus of the Anglican Church ; 
The Anglo-American Church ; Countess of Huntingdon ; Catho- 
licity of the Anglican Church ; The Antichrist of Protestants ; 
Milman's Christianity ; Reformation of the Eleventh Century ; 
Private Judgment ; Davison ; Kemble. L. Pickering. 1872-77. 
12s. 

By the able Roman Catholic prelate, formerly of the Church of 

England. 

Id. Historical Sketches. 3 v. Primitive Christianity ; Church of 
the Fathers; St. Chrysostom; Theodoret ; St. Benedict, etc. 
L. Pickering. 1873 sqq. 18s. 



ECCLESIASTICAL HISTOKY. 349 

Robinson, James E. History of the Christian Cliurch (a.d. 64-1517). 
4 v., 1854 sqq. ; 8 v., 12mo, L., 1874. 

The best general history yet written from the Anglican point of view. 

Scliaff, Philip. History of the Apostolic Chm-ch. Svo. N.Y. 
1853, etc. 83.75. 

Excellent, but superseded by his magnum opus, History of the 
Christian Church. 

Id. History of the Christian Church. 3 v. Svo. 1859-67. Revised 
and enlarged, with maps : Vol. I., Apostolic Christianity (a.d. 
1-100), pp. 863; Vol. II., Ante-Xicene Christianity (a.d. 100- 
325), pp. 866; Vol. III., iSTicene and Post-Nicene Christianity 
(a.d. 311-600), pp. 1039. N.Y. Scr. 1882-84. (Other volumes 
are promised.) $4.00 per volume. 

The greatest monument of American scholarship in the field of 
church history. Orthodox, liberal, readable. Though designed 
especially for students, it meets the wants of studious men in all 
the walks of life. It is peculiarly rich in bibliographies. 

Smith, Philip. The Student's Manual of Ecclesiastical History. A 
history of the Christian church from the time of the Apostles to 
the full establishment of the Holy Roman Empire and the Papal 
power. Illustrated. 12mo. N.Y. H. 1879. 81-50. 

An excellent manual. It contains chronological tables, and has an 

index. 

Stanley, A. P. Essays on Ecclesiastical Subjects : Baptism and the 
Eucharist, Absolution, Ecclesiastical Vestments, the Basilica, 
the Clergy, the Pope, the Litany, the Roman Catacombs, the 
Creed of the Early Christians, the Lord's prayer, the Council 
and Creed of Constantinople, and the Ten Commandments. 
12mo. N.Y. H. 50 cents. 
By a scholarly genius. 

Waddington, George. History of the Church, from the Earliest 
Ages to the Reformation. 8vo. N.Y. H. $2.00. 

Washburn, E. A. Lectures on the Apostolic Age, the Nicene Age, 
the Latin Age, the Reformation, the English Chui-ch, the Church 
of America, the Church of the Future, Richard Hooker, etc. 
12mo. pp. 400. N.Y. Dutton & Co. 81.75. 



350 A SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY OF 

Whately, Richard. A General View of the Rise, Progress, and 
Corruption of Christianity. 12mo. pp. 288. N.Y. W. Gow- 
ans, 1860. N. Tibbals & Sons, 1876. $1.50. 
White, James. The Eighteen Christian Centuries. 12ino. L. & 
N.y. Second edition. 1862. App. .f2.00. 

" Its merit is in the fact that the spirit of each age is generally well 
api^rehended and correctly represented ; while its weakness shows 
itself in what must be considered an altogether artificial division 
of history into exact periods of a hundred years each. The author's 
style is at all times bright and vigorous." — C. K. Adams. 



III. EARLY CHRISTIANITY. 

(^See Lives of Christ, under Biography.^ 
1. General. 

Baumgarten, M. Apostolic History. The Acts of the Apostles ; 

or, the History of the Church in the Apostolic Age. Translated 

by A. J. W. Morrison. 3 v. 8vo. Ed. 1854. -|9.00. 

Baur, Ferd. Christ. The Christians and the Christian Church of 

the First Three Centuries. Tiibingen, 1853. 2d rev. ed., 1860 

(pp. 536). The 3d ed. is a reprint of the second, forming Vol. I. 

of Baur's General Church History, edited by his son, in 5 v., 1863. 

Tv.hj A.Menzies. 8vo. 2 v. L. W. & N. 1878,1879. 10s. 6d.' 

"The last and ablest exposition of the Tiibingen reconstruction of 

the Apostolic History from the pen of the master of that school. . . . 

Baur's critical researches liave compelled a thorough revision of 

the traditional views on the apostolic age, and have so far been 

useful, notwithstanding their fundamental errors." — P. Schaff. 

Blunt, J. H. A Christian View of Christian History, from Apos- 
tolic to Mediaeval Times. 12mo. L. Rivingtons. 1866. New 
edition, 1872. Is. Qd. 
Delitzsch, Franz. Jewish Artizan Life in the Time of Jesus. 
Translated by £eni/mrc? PicL 12mo. N.Y. Funk & Wagnalls. 
1884. Paper, 15 cts. ; cloth, 75 cts. 

Scholarly; but entertaining as a romance. The author refers, in 
foot-notes, to his authoi-ities. Well translated. 



ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 351 

Dollinger, Johann Joseph Ignaz. The First Age of Christianity. 

Translated by H. N. Oxenhams. 2 v. 8vo. L. 1866. |8.00. 

" Dr. Dollinger has long been held as one of the ablest historians 

in the Roman Catholic Church ; and this work may be regarded as 

the most successfid representation of the early history of the 

Church from the Catholic point of view." — C. K. Adams. 

Eusebius. Ecclesiastical History (Greek). Translated by C. F. 

Cruse; with an Historical View of the Council of Nice, by Isaac 

Boyle. Svo. L., 1842. Ph., 1860. Lip. $2.50. Another 

translation in Greek Ecclesiastical Historians of the First Six 

Centuries, q.v. 

Eusebius, "the Christian Herodotus," was intimately associated 
with Constantine the Great. Died 340. 
Farrar, F. W. Early Days of Christianity. N.Y. Fmik & Wag- 
nails. Paper, 40 cts. ; cloth, 75 cts. 
A standard work. 
Fisher, George P. The Beginnings of Christianity, with a View of 
the State of the Roman World at the Birth of Christ. 8vo. 
pp. 580. N.Y. Scr. 1877. $3.00. 

Scholarly, but popular. In this volume the orthodox but liberal 
author incidentally discusses the theories of the Tiibingen school. 
Id. Supernatural Origin of Christianity, with special reference to 
the theories of Renan, Strauss, and the Tiibingen school. Svo. 
pp. 620. N.Y. Scr. New and enlarged edition, 1870. $3.00. 
Suited to the needs of all classes of readers. Clear, strong, readable. 
Gibbon, Edward. Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. See 
chapters on the Growth of Christianity. Numerous editions. 
Contains many depreciatory references to the Christian church. 
"To counteract the influence of these arguments and insinuations 
of Gibbon, both Milman and Guizot have edited sj^ecial editions 
of this history, with abundant notes. The Student's Gibbon, pre- 
pared by W. Smith in a similar spirit, is an edition greatly 
abridged." — N. Porter. The best edition is Milmau's. 

Hatch, E. The Organization of the Early Christian Churches. 
Banipton Lectm-es for 1880. 8vo. pp. 216. Oxford and Cam- 
bridge. Rivingtons. 1881. 10s. 6fZ. 

Learned, eloquent. Shows the development of church polity from 

a democracy into a monarchy. 



352 A SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY OF 

Historians (Greek) of the Fii'st Six Centm-ies. Translations in 

Bohn's Ecclesiastical Library. 4 v. 8vo. L. 1851. Eusebius, 

Socrates, Sozomeu, Theodoret, and Evagrius. 6 v. L. 1843-47- 
$2.00 each. 

Cf. Geo. A. Jackson : The Aijostolic Fathers of the Second Century, 
with extracts, pp. 203. N.Y. 1878. 

Jackson, Samuel M. Lipsius on the Roman Peter-Legend. In the 
Presb. Quar. and Princeton Rev. (N.Y.) for 1876. p. 265 sqq. 

A summary of the views of R. A. Lipsius, who has examined 
"carefully the heretical sources of the Roman Peter-legend, and 
regards it as a fiction from beginning to end." 

John, St. The Fourth Gospel. 

See Baur, Strauss, Renan, and their followers. The genuineness 
of this Gospel has been defended by Priestley, Andretvs & Norton, 
Van Oosterzee (trans, by Hurst), Lange (Com. trans, by Schaff), 
Sunday (Authorship and Historical Character of the Fourth Gos- 
pel, London, 1872), Lightfoot (in Cont. Rev., 1875-77), George P. 
Fisher (Beginnings of Christianity, chap, x., and art. " The Fourth 
Gospel " in the Princeton Rev. for July, 1881, pp. 51-84), Westcott 
(Introduction to the Gospels, 1862, 1875, and Commentary, 1879), 
McClellan (The Four Gospels, 1875), Milligan (in the Cont. Rev. 
for 1867, 1868, 1871, and in his Moulton's Commentary, 1880), and 
Ezra Abbot (The Authorship of the Fourth Gospel, External Evi- 
dences, Boston, 1880; paper, 50 cents. A work of great merit). 

Lightfoot, J. B. In Contemporary Review, 1875-77. A series of 
articles against " Supernatural Religion," q.v. Cf. the reply of 
the anonymous author in the preface to the sixth edition of S. R. 

Maurice, F. D. Lectures on the Ecclesiastical History of the First 
and Second Centuries. 8vo. Camb., 1854. L. Macm. $3.50. 

Milman, Henry Hart. The History of Christianity, from the Birth 
of Christ to the Abolition of Paganism in the Roman Empire. 
8 v. 8vo, L. ; and 12mo, N.Y. New and revised edition : N.Y. 
Armstrong. 1871. $5.25. 

For the person that can read but one church history, this, perhaps, 
is the best. It is jDervaded by the spirit of enlightened faith. It 
treats especially of the relations of Christianity to the Roman Em- 
pire. 



ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 353 

Mosheim, J. L. History of the Ante-Nicene Period. Translated 
from the Latin by Vidal. 3 v. 1813 sqq. 2 v. New Haven, 
1852. New edition. 2 v. N.Y., 1853. 

Neander, J. A . W. History of the Planting and Training of the 
Christian Church. Translated by J. E. Ryland. Ed., 1842 ; 
and in Bohn's Standard Library, L., 1851 ; reprinted in Ph., 
1844 ; revised by E. G. Robinson, N.Y., 1865. $4.00. 

" This book marks an epoch, aud is still valuable." — P. Schaff. 

Priestley, J. General History of the Christian Church to the Fall 
of the Western Empire. In Works, Vols. 8-10. 

Pressense, Edmund de. The Early Years of Christianity. Trans- 
lated by Annie Harwood-Holmden. 4 v. 12mo. L., Hodder & 
Stoughton, and N.Y. 1870 and 1879. 31.50. 

By a scholarly Protestant pastor. Written in a popular style. 

Renan, Ernest. The Apostles. 12mo. N.Y. Carleton. 1870. $1.75. 
Id. The Influence of the Institutions, etc., of Home upon Christi- 
anity. The Hibbert Lectures for 1880. L. W. & N. 1880. 
$3.50. 

In Kenan's best spirit. He shows, clearly and conclusively, that 
in its external organization, the early church was by degrees con- 
formed to the existing institutions of the Roman Empire, and that 
these institutions thus have been perpetuated to the present day. 

Simcox, Wm. H. Lectures on the Beginnings of the Christian 
Church. 12mo. L. 1881. $3.00. 

Supernatural Religion, an Inquiry into the Reality of Divine 
Revelation. Anonymous. L., 1873; 2 v., 8vo, B., R., 1875, 
$8.00; 7th ed., "carefully revised," 1879, 3 v., 8vo, L., Longm., 
36s. 

"An English reproduction and repository of the critical specula- 
tions of the Tiibingen School of Baur, Strauss, Zeller, Schwegler, 
Hilgenfeld, Volkmar, etc. . . . Dr. Schiirer, in the ' Theol. Litera- 
tur Zeitung' for 1879, No. 26 (p. (i22), denies to this work scientific 
value for Germany, but gives it credit for extraordinary familiarity 
with recent German literatui-e, and great industry in collecting 
historical details. Drs. Lightfoot, Sanday, Ezra Abbot, and 
others, have exposed the defects of its scholarship and the false 
premises from which the writer reasons." — P. Schaff, 



354 A SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY OF 

Taylor, Isaac. Ancient Christianity and tlie Doctrine of the Ox- 
ford "Tracts for the Times." Fonrth edition, with a supple- 
ment. 2 V. 8vo. L. Bohn. 1844:. 

By an Independent. Polemic; against "Puseyism" and tlie Ro- 
man Catholic Church. 
Wadsworth, Charles. A Chmxh History. [To the Council of 
Chalcedon, a.d. 451.] 4 v. 12mo. L. and N.Y. 1881(?). 
.Vol. I., $2.50; II., III., and IV., ^2.00 each. 
Churchly; not critical. 

2. Catacombs. 

The best original authorities are in Italian. The highest is Rossi. 
The works of Padre-Marchi and Perret are superbly illustrated. 
D'Agincourt wrote from a personal knowledge of fifty years. 
Luiuly, John P. Monumental Christianity ; or, the Art and Sym- 
bolism of the Primitive Chm-ch as Witnesses and Teachers of 
the one Catholic Faith and Practice. N.Y. Bouton. 1876. 
New edition ; enlarged, 1882, pp. 453. Illustrated, f 7.50. 
The writer is an Episcopalian. 
Mommsen, Theodor. Roman Catacombs, in The Contemporary 

Review, Vol. XVII. (1871), pp. 100-175. 
JSForthcote, J. S., and Broivnlow, W. R. Roma Sotterranea. L. 
Longmans, Green & Co., 1869. Second edition, "rewritten and 
greatly enlarged." 1879. 2 v. |22..50. 

Northcote, Canon of Birmingham, and Brownlow, Canon of Ply- 
mouth, here present to English readers the results of Commendatore 
De Rossi's celebrated researches. The book is liberally illustrated 
with chromo-lithogi-aphic plates and with wood engravings. 
Northcote, J. Spencer. Epitaphs of the Catacombs; or. Christian 
Inscriptions in Rome during the First four Centuries. L. 
Bin-ns & Gates. 10s. (Vol. III. of B. & G.'s edition of Roma 
Sotterranea. Vols. I. and II. £1 4s. each.) 
Parker, John Henry. The Archaeology of Rome. Illustrated. Ox- 
ford and L. 1877. (Parts IX. and X., |6.00; and XII., |6.00.) 
Standard. Consult, also, iTyj, Maitland, McCaid, Stanley (in his 
Christian Institutions), Smi/th (pamphlet, 1882), Stokes (in Con- 
temporary Review, 1880, 1881), Veiiables (in Smith and Cheetham, 
i. 291-317), Marriott, and Withrow. 



ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 355 

3. Charitt. 

Uldhorn, Gerhard. Christian Charity in the Ancient Church. 
8vo. N.Y. Scr. -f2.50. 

The best work on the subject. Cf. Chastel : Charity of the Primi- 
tive Churches. Trans, by G. A. Matiles. Ph. Lip. 1857. .f 1.25. 

4. Controversies and Heresies. 

DolUnger, J. J. I. Hippolytus and Callistus. In German, 1853. 

TrawAsAadhj Alfred Plummer. Svo. Ed. 1876. pp.360. $3.60. 

" An apology for Callistus and the Roman See against Hippolytus, 

the supposed iirst anti-Pope." See Wordsworth for a defence of 

Hippolytus. 

Mansel, Henry L. The Gnostic Heresies. Edited by J. B. Light- 
foot. L. Murray. 1875. |4.75. 

Mansel was dean of St. Paul's. Cf. Dr. Lightfoot's Excursus in his 
Commentary on Colossians and Philemon for a satisfactory account 
of Gnosticism. C. W. King's Gnostics and their Remains (L., 1864) 
contains illustrations of Gnostic symbols and works of art. See, 
also, Norton : History of the Gnostics. B. 1845. 

Newman, J. H. The Arians of the Fourth Century. L. 1838. 

Second edition, unchanged, 1854; third edition, 12mo. L. 

1871. $3.50. 
De Soyres, J. Montanism and the Primitive Church : a Study in 

the Ecclesiastical History of the Second Centui-y. (Hulsean 

Prize Essay, 1877.) 8vo. pp. 163. L. Bell & Son. 1878. 6s. 

5. Patristics. 

Donaldson, James. A Critical History of Christian Literature and 
Doctrine from the Death of the Apostles to the Nicene Coimcil. 
L., 1864-66. 8vo, 3 v., L., Macm., 1874. $3.00. 
Valuable. Cf. Blunt and Jackson. 

6. Persecutions. 

Mason, A. J. The Persecutions of Diocletian. (Hulsean Prize 
Essay, 1874.) Svo. pp. 370. L. Bell & Sous. 1876. 10s. Qd. 
In defence of Diocletian. 



356 A SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY OF 

Uhlhorn, Gerhard. The Conflict of Christianity with Heathenism. 
Translated by Egbert C. Smyth and /. C. H. Ropes. 8vo. 
pp. 508. N.Y. Scr. $2.50. 



IV. MEDIEVAL CHRISTIANITY. 

1. General. 

Bryce, James. The Holy Roman Empire. Seventh edition, 12rao. 
pp. xxvii, 479. N.Y. Macm. 1877. pj.m. 

Standard. An excellent introduction to mediaeval history, both 
ecclesiastical and secular. 

Church, R. W. The Beginnings of the Middle Ages. With three 
Maps. 16mo. L. and N.Y. Longm. 1877. |1,00. 

Small, but readable and instructive. Discusses the relation of the 
Franks to the Church, and the ecclesiastico-political relations of 
Gregory the Great, Charlemagne, and Otto the Great. 

Creighton, M. A History of the Papacy during the Period of the 
Reformation. 8vo. 2 v. L., Longm.; B., Houghton, Mifflin 
& Co. 1882. 110.00. 

The volumes treat of the events that led to the Reformation. Vol. 
II. ends with the death of Pius II., in 14G4. 
Greene, G. W. Lectures on the Middle Ages. 12mo. N.Y. App. 
$1.50. 

" A useful and trustworthy manual." — N. Torter. 

Hallam, Henry. State of Europe during the Middle Ages. 8vo. 
N.Y. H. $2.00. Student's edition, 12mo, .fl.25. 

" Though exceedingly dry and condensed in its matter and manner, 
it is indispensable, even to a general reader." — N. Porter. 
Hardwick, C. A History of the Christian Church. Middle Ages. 

L. Macm. |2.25. 
Lacroix, Paul. Works on the Middle Ages. 5 v. Imperial 8vo. 
L. 1880. N.Y. A]ip. $12.00 per volume. 

The title of the third volume is " Military and Religious Life in the 
Middle Ages and at the Pei'iod of the Renaissance." Well translated, 
and richly illustrated. In collecting materials for his work, the 
author made good use of his opportunities as curator of the Im- 
perial Library at the Arsenal of Paris. 



ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 357 

Milman, Henry Hart. History of Latin Christianity. Including 
that of the Popes to the pontificate of Niciiolas V. (For price, 
etc., see under General Church History, European.) 

"To the student of the middle ages this work is second in import- 
ance only to that of (libbon. ... Of the numerous works on the 
history of the church in the Middle Ages, this will generally be 
found at once the most readable, the most im^jartial, and the most 
satisfactory." — C. K. Adams. 

Trench, Richard C. Lectures on Medifeval Church History. Being 
the substance of lectures delivered at Queen's College, London. 
8vo. N.Y. Scr. 1878. |3.00. 

" A good popular sketch." — W. F. Allen. 

Ullmann, C. Reformers before the Reformation. Principally in 
Germany and the Xetherlands : I. John of Goch ; H. John of 
Wesel ; HI. The Brethren of the Common Lot and the German 
Mystics; IV. John Wessel. Translated by Robert Menzies. 
2 V. 8vo. pp. XXV, 416; xiv, 636. Ed. T. & T. Clark. 
1855. $3.00 per volume. 

Woodhouse, F. C. Military Religious Orders of the Middle Ages. 
Soc. 1879. 3s. 6d. 

2. Celibacy of the Clergy. 

Lea, Henry C. Historical Sketches of Sacerdotal Celibacy in the 
Christian Church. Svo. pp.601. B. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 
1884. Ph. Lip. $3.75. 

Highly valued, as embodying the resiQts of independent and 

thorough research. 

3. Crusades. 
{See Appendix, p. 386.) 

4. Lollards. 

WycHiffe, John de. Apology for Lollard Doctrine, attributed to 
Wyckliffe. With introduction and notes by /. //. Todd. 4to. 
L. Camden Soc. 1842. 
See Biography, Wyckliffe. 



358 A SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY OF 

5. Myths. 

Baring- Gould, S. Curious Myths of tne Middle Ages. 12mo, 
L., 186(5; IGmo, B., R., 1880. i$1.50. 

" The book is instructive, but it entertains and amuses even more 
than it instructs." — C. K. Adams. 
Cox, George W., and Jones, E. H. Popular Romances of the Mid- 
dle Ages. First American, from the second London, edition. 
8vo. N.Y. Holt & Co. 1880. $2.25. 

" Probably the most valuable of the several manuals on the subject 
of the folk-lore of Europe." — C. K. Adams. 
DoUinger, J. J. I. Fables Respecting the Popes of the Middle 
Ages, together with Dr. Dollinger's essay on the Prophetic 
Spirit and the Prophecies of the Christian Era. Translated 
by Alfred Plummer, with an introduction and notes by H. B. 
Smith. 12mo. N.Y. Dodd, Mead, & Co. 1872. $2.25. 

6. Waldenses. 

Wylie,J.A. History of the Waldenses. L. Cassell. 2d edition. 
1880. $1.25. 

Worsfold, J. N. The Vaudois of Piedmont, A Visit to their Val- 
leys, with a Sketch of their History to the Present Date. 8vo. 
L. J. F. Shaw & Co. 1873. 3s. 



V. MODERN CHRISTIANITY. 

1. General Histories of the Reformation Period. 

Balmes, James. European Civilization : Protestantism and Cathol- 
icism Compared in their Effects on the Civilization of Europe. 
8vo. 10th edition. Baltimore. Murphy. 1850. $2.50. 

By a learned Spanish priest, whose purpose in writing was to 
refute Guizot's reflections upon the Roman Catholic Church. Con- 
troversial. Contains interesting chapters on " Tolerance in Matters 
of Religion," "The Right of Coercion," and "The Inquisition in 
Spain." 



ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. S59 

Bossuet, J. B. The History of the Variations of the Protestant 
Churches. Translated from the last French edition. 2 v. 8vo. 
pp. 432, 424. DubHn. R. Coyne. 1829. 

Translated from the classic French of a celebrated Roman Catholic 

prelate. 

D' Aubigne, J. H. Merle. History of the Great Reformation of the 
Sixteenth Century in Germany, Switzerland, etc. Translated 
from the French. 5 v. 12mo. N.Y. Carter Bros. 1846, etc. 
$4..50. 

The most widely read, but by no means the best, history of the 
Reformation. C. K. Adams justly pronounces it "simply one side 
of a great question, presented with great power by a skilful and 
brilliant advocate." D'Aubigne was an ardent Protestant. 

Fisher, George P. The Reformation. 8vo. iST.Y. Scr. 1873. 
$3.00. 

Perhaps the best short history of the Reformation. 

Froude,J.A. Short Studies. 12mo. 3 v. N.Y. Scr. S|1.50 each. 
Contain essays on "Erasmus and Luther," "Influence of the 
Reformation on Scottish Character," "Philosophy of Catholicism," 
and on "Calvinism." 

Hagenhach, K. R. Hist, of the Ref. in Ger. and Switzerland chiefly. 

Tr. from the 4th rev. ed. of the Ger. by Evelina Moore. 2 v. 8vo. 

Vol. 1, 1878, pp. 422; vol. 2, 1879, pp. 43(3. Ed. T. & T. Clark. 

10s. QkL each. 

See also his Hist, of the Church in the 18th and 19th Centuries, tr. by 
John F. Hurst. Svo. 2 v. pp. 504, 489. N.Y. Scr. 18(39. L. Hodder 
&Stoughton. 1870. $6.00. 

Hardwich, C. The Reformation. 8yo. L. ]\Iacm. 1873. !f;2.25. 

Hdusser, Ludwig. Period of the Reformation (1517-1048). 12mo. 
L. and X.Y. 1874. $2.-50. 

" A course of lectures of high scholarship and historic insight." — 
W. F. Allen. Eleven of the fifty lectures discuss the Thirty 
Tears' War. Not controversial. The book is translated by Mrs. 
G. Stvrr/c, and edited by Prof. Wm. Oncken. 

Hurst, John F. Sliort History of the Reformation, pp. 120. N.Y. 
H. 1884. 40 cts. 

The shortest history of tlie Reformation, and, for a beginner, the 
best. It contains portraits and maps. 



3(30 A SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY OF 

Ranke, Leopold von. The History of the Popes, their Church and 
State, and especially of thek Conflicts with Protestantism in 
the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centui-ies. Translated by E. 
Foster, 3 v., 12nio, L., 1840. Translated by Sarah Austin, 3 v., 
8vo, pp. 385, 414, 481. L., Murray, 1866. L., Bell. $3.75. 

" First published as early as 1837, this great work did more than 
any other to raise its author to that supreme rank among historians, 
which he has now long enjoyed. ... As a jwrtrayal of the interiot 
policy of the church, and of the course that led to the reaction 
against the Reforrr^tion, these volumes have no equal." — C. K. 
Adams. 

Seebohm, Frederic. The Era of the Protestant Revolution. Sec- 
ond edition, with notes on books in English relating to the 
Reformation, by George P. Fisher. 16mo. N.Y. Scr. 1875. 
11.00. 

" A convenient and popular summary. . . . The book is less com- 
prehensive in scope and less able in manner of treatment, than the 
work of Hausser." — C. K. Adams. The book is one of the Epochs 
of History series. 

Spalding, M. J. History of the Protestant Reformation in Ger- 
many and Switzerland ; and in England, Ireland, Scotland, the 
Netherlands, France, and Northern Em-ope. 8vo. Baltimore 
and N.Y. 1860. Many other editions. P.50. 

By the late archbishop of Baltimore. Intended as a reply to 
D'Aubigne'. "It is consequently too controversial to be of the 
greatest historical value, but it is scarcely more one-sided than the 
work of D'Aubigne', and it is perhaps the strongest presentation we 
have of the Catholic side of the Reformation." — C. K. Adams. 



2. The Roman Catholic Church. 

I. General. 

Wiseman, {Cardinal) N. Recollections of the last four Popes and 
of Rome in their Times. 12mo. N.Y. P. O'Shea. 4 v. 
$1.50 each. 

See under the Reformation Period, Church and State, and 

Councils. 



ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 361 

II. The Inquisition. 

"The Catholic Inquisition is best described by Llorente, is most 

heartily justified by Balmes, and most vigorously denounced by 

Buckle." — C. K. Adams. 
Llorente, D. Jean Antoine. The History of the Inquisition of 
Spain, from the time of the Establishment to the Reign of Fer- 
dinand VII. Composed from the original documents in the 
archives of the Supreme Council, and from those of subordinate 
tribunals of the Holy Office. 8vo. L. 1826. 

An abridged translation from the Spanish. There is no more 

authentic history of the Spanish Inquisition. 
Rule, William H. History of the Inquisition, from its Establish- 
ment in the Twelfth Century to its Extinction in the Nineteenth. 
2 V. 8vo. L. Hamilton. 1874. 25s. 

By a Wesleyan minister. Controversial, but fair, and ably written. 

III. Jansenists. 

Neale, J. M. History of the so-called Jansenist Church of Hol- 
land. 8vo. Oxford. Parker. 1858. 5s. 

Treyetles, S. P. The Jansenists : their Rise, Persecutions by the 
Jesuits, and Existing Remnant. 12mo. L. Bagster. 1851. $1.60. 

IV. Jesuits. 
Carlyle, Thomas. See his essay on Jesuitism in his " Latter-day 

Pamphlets." 8vo. L. C. & H. 9s. 
Macaulay, T. B. See his essay on Ranke, in which he maintains 
that the Jesuits, in their history, represent the Catholic reaction 
from the Protestant Reformation. 
Stephen, (Sir) James. See his essay on Loyala, in Ecclesiastical 
Essays. 

"The best brief account of the rise of the Jesuits." — C. K. Adams. 

V. Port Royalists. 
Beard, Charles. Port Royal. A Contribution to the History of 
Religion and Literature in France. New edition. 2 v. 8vo. 
L. W. & N. 1873. !i^4.80. 
Cf. Stephen's Essays. 



362 A SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY OF 

VI. Ultramontanism and Vaticanism. 
(See Chui'ch and State, under Special Topics.) 

3. Old Catholic. 

" TJieodorus." The New Reformation ; a narrative of the Old 
Catholic movement from 1870 to the present time, with an 
historical introduction. 8vo. L. Longm.(?) 12s. 
For periodical literature, cousiilt Poole's Index. 

4. Modern Ecclesiastical History, by Countries. 
I. Bohemia. 
Gillett, E. H. The Life and Times of John Huss ; or, the Bohe- 
mian Reformation of the Fifteenth Centmy. 2 v. Svo. pp. 
632, 651. B., Gould & Lincoln, 1863 ; X.Y., Randolph. ^7.00. 

II. England. — A. The Church of England established by Law. 

Bede. Historia Ecclesiastica. Oxford. 1846. In Bohn's Anti- 
quarian Library, with the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, $2.00. 
Blunt, J. H. The Reformation of the Chm-ch of England. 2 v. 
N.Y. Young. .f8.50. 

" The best complete history. Extends from 1514 to 1602. From 
the point of view of the Church of England." — W. F. Allen. 
Id. Sketch of the Reformation in England. Young. fl.50. 
Cobbett. Reformation in England and Ireland. 12nio. Baltimore, 
Mtirphy, 1851, 75 cts. ; N.Y., Sadlier, ,fl.25. 
Roman Catholic. Wholly unsympathetic. 
Diocesan Histories. Maps. [Canterbury, Chichester, Durham, 
Sheffield, Oxford, Peterborough, Salisbury, Worcester, York.] 
L. Soc. N.Y. Young. 2s. M. each, except Canterbury and 
York, 3s. 6^. 

Valuable. Intended to form a complete library of English Ecclesi- 
astical History. 
Dixon, R. W. History of the Church of England. 2 v. Rout- 
ledge. 16s. each. 

"The most thorough and important work; not yet completed." — 
W. F. Allen. 



ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 363 

Fuller, Thomas [edited by /. S. Brewer^. The Church History of 
Britain; from the Birth of Jesus Christ until the year 1648, 
etc. 6v. 8vo. Clarendon Press, Oxford. 1845. £1 19s. 

Geikie, Cunningham. The English Reformation, How it came 
about and why we should uphold it. 12nio. pp. xviii, 512. 
N.Y. App. 1869 and 1879. $2.00. 

Haddan and Stuhhs. Councils and Ecclesiastical Documents relat- 
ing to Great Britain and Ireland. 8vo. 3 v. jjp. 704, 285, 
660. Oxford. Clarendon Press. 1869-78. Vols. 1 and 2, £1 Is. 
each ; vol. 2, part 1, 10s. 6c?. ; vol. 2, part 2, 3s. M. 

Herford, Brook. The Story of Religion in England. 12mo. pp. 
391. Ch. Jansen, McClurg, & Co. $1.50. 

Perry, G. G. A History of the Church of England from the Ac- 
cession of Henry VIII. to the Silencing of Convocation in the 
Eighteenth Century. AVith an Appendix containing a Sketch of 
the History of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United 
States of America, by/. yl.Sjoencer. 8vo. N.Y. H. 1879. $2. .50. 
Excellent. " The best that has yet been written." — N.Y. Chukch- 

MAN. 

Short, (Bp.) Thomas V. Sketch of the History of the Chm'ch of 
England, to the Revolution, 1688. 8th edition. 8vo. L. 
Longm. 1870. 7s. 6d. 
Stanley, A. P. Historical Memorials of Canterbury Cathedral. 

8vo. L. INIurray. 1855. 5th edition, 1860. 7s. 6c?. 
Id. Historical Memorials of Westminster Abbey. 8vo. L. Mur- 
ray. 1867. 4th edition, 1874. 15s. 
Important; entertaining. 
Strype, J. Works : Ecclesiastical Memorials, Annals, etc. [Orig. 
fol. 1694-1733.] 

An excellent edition is that of the Clarendon Press, 1820-28, 8vo, 
27 v., including two index volumes, £7 13s. Gd. Important. 

For histories of the Book of Common Prayer, see Liturgies. 

B. Disse7iters. 
Neal, Daniel. The History of the Puritans ; or, Protestant N^on- 
Conformists, from the Reformation (1517) to the Revolution in 



364 A SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY OF 

1688. Reprinted from the Text of Dr. Toulmin's edition, with 
his life of the author, etc. Revised, corrected, and enlarged, 
3 v., 8vo, L., Tegg, 1837; and with notes by J. O. Choules, 2 v., 
8vo, N.Y., H., 1863. $4.00. 

See Denominational Histories of the United States, for American 
chui'ches having their origin in England. 

III. France. 

Baird, Henry M. History of the Rise of the Huguenots of France. 
Maps. 2v. 8vo. N.Y. Scr. 1879. $3.50. 

"An excellent account . . . from . . . 1515 to . . . 1574. . . . Written 
with judicial moderation." — C. K. Adams. 

Poole, Reginald Lane. A History of the Huguenots of the Disper- 
sion at the Recall of the Edict of Nantes. 12mo. L. Macm 
1880. 6s. 

" A very learned, and a very successful, attempt to show what be- 
came of the Huguenots after the dispersion." — C. K. Adams. 

Pressense, E. de. Religion and the Reign of Terror ; or, the Church 
during the French Revolution. Translated by J. P. Lacroix. 
12mo. pp. 416. N.Y. Carlton and Lanahan. 1869. fl.75. 
Smiles, S. The Huguenots in France. 8vo. N.Y. H. #2.00. 
Id. The Huguenots in England, Ireland, and America. 8vo. 

N.Y. H. $2.00. 
Weiss, Charles. Histoiy of the French Protestant Refugees. 
Translated from the French by H. W. Herbert. With an 
American Appendix. 2 v. 8vo. pp. 382, 419. N.Y. Stringer 
& Townsend. 1854. 

A fine work, well translated. 
White, Henry. The Massacre of St. Bartholomew, preceded by a 
History of the Religious Wars in the Reign of Charles IX. 
With illustrations. 8vo. N.Y. H. 1871. $1.75. 

" Written in a judicious spirit. . . . Adopts the view of Ranke and 
of Soldan in believing that the famous massacre was not the result 
of a long-premeditated plot. . . . Many new materials tending to 
confirm this view. . . . The book, however, does not show the 
same intellectual grasp as that manifested in the pages of Baird." 
— C. K. Adams. 



ECCLESIASTICAL HISTOEY. 365 

IV. Germany. 

Lloyd, Julius. Sketches of Church History in Germany. L. Soc 
1882. Is. Qd. 

See, also, Doctrines, Biography, and General Histories of the Refor- 
mation Period. 

V. Holland. 
Martyn, W. C. The Dutch Reformation : a History of the Struggle 
in the Netherlands for Civil and Religious Liberty in the Six- 
teenth Century. 12mo. pp. 823. N.Y. American Tract 
Society. 1868. $1.75. 

VI. Hungary. 

D'Aubigne, J. H. Merle. History of the Protestant Church in 
Hungary to 1850. Translated by the Rev. J. Craig, D.D., with 
an introduction by /. H. Merle D'Aubig7ie, D.D. 8vo. jpp. 
xxviii, -104. L. J. Nisbet & Co. 1844. 

VII. Ireland. 

Mant, Richard. History of the Church of Ireland, from the Refor 
mation to the Revolution, with a Preliminary Survey from the 
Papal Usui'pation in the TweKth Century to its legal abolition 
in the Sixteenth. Large 8vo. 2 v. jij). 809, 844. L. Parker. 
1845. 17s each. 

VIII. Italy. 

Baird, Robt. Sketches of Protestantism in Italy. 12mo. B. 

1845. 11.75. 
McCrie, Thos. History of the Progress and Suppression of the 

Reformation in Italy in the Sixteenth Century. Including a 

Sketch of the History of the Reformation in the Grisons. 

12mo. Ph. Presb. Bd. of Pub. |1.00. 

IX. Poland. 

Krasinski, Valerian. Historical Sketch of the Rise, Progress, and 
Decline of the Reformation in Poland. 2 v. 8vo. pp. xxi, 
415; xxiii, 573. L. Murray. 1838. 



366 A SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY OE 

X. Scandinavia. 
Crichton, A., and Wheaton, H. Scandinavia, Ancient and Modern : 
being a History of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway ; compre- 
hending ... an account of the Mythology . . . Religion, etc. 
2v. IGmo. pp. xvii, 373; X, 403. N.Y. H. 1872. $1.50. 

XI. Scotland. 
Lawrence, E. The Scottish Covenanters, pp. 14. Harper's Maga- 
zine, V. 46, 1873, p. 103. 
Stanley, A. P. Lectures on the History of the Church in Scotland. 
8vo. pp. 180. L. Murray. 1872. 7s. M. 

" Delighted the moderate and liberal, but displeased the orthodox " 
people of Scotland. 

XII. Spain. 
McCrie, Thou. History of the Progress and Suppression of the 
Reformation in Spain in the Sixteenth Century. 8vo. pp. viii, 
424. Ed. Blackwood & Son. 1829. 

Cf . PrescoU's History of the Reign of Philip II. 
Yonge, (Miss) C. M. Christians and Mooi's of Spam. L. Macm. 
$1.25. N.Y. H. Paper. 10 cents. 
A popular sketch. 

XIII. Switzerland. 

D' Aubigne, J. H. Merle. Reformation in Switzerland. 2 v. 1864. 
See Biographies of Calviu, Servetus, aud Zwinglius. 

XIV. United States of America. — A. General. 

Baird, Robert. Religion in America. 8vo. pp. 338. N.Y. H. 
1844. $3.00. 

By a Presbyterian minister. The best book on the subject. 
Belcher, Joseph. The Religious Denominations in the United 
States. Illustrated. New and revised edition. Large 8vo. 
pp. 1024. Ph. John E. Potter. 1861. $5.00. 

A voluminous and somewhat crude work, which is, nevertheless, 
useful for reference. It contains many extracts from official docu- 
ments not elsewhere easily accessible. 



ECCLESIASTICAL HISTOKY. 367 

Mather, Cotton. Magnalia Christ! Americana. [1702.] With 
notes and translations by Robbins and Robinson. 2 v. 8vo. 
pp. 622, 082. Hartford. S. Andrews & Son. 1853. 

Confined chiefly to New England. Editions withont critical notes 

are misleading. 

Rupp, I. D. An Original History of the Religious Denominations 

in the United States. 8vo. pp. 734. Ph. Humphreys. 1844. 

Chapters contributed by prominent members of the several churches. 

Sprague, Willium B. Annals of the American Pulpit. 8 v. 8vo. 

N.Y. 1859-6.5. 

Biographical ; impartial. Vols. 1 and 2, Trinitarian Congregation- 
alists; vols. 3 and 4, Presbyterians; vol. 5, Episcopalians; vol. G, 
Baptists; vol. 7, Methodists; vol.8, Unitarians. There is a later 
edition published by Carter in 9 v. ($36,00). 

B. Denominational. 
Baptist. 

Backus, I. History of New England, with Particular Reference to 
the Denomination of Christians called Baptists. 8vo. B., 
1777; Providence, 1784; B., 1796; Xewton, 1871. 2 v. pp. x, 
588; vi, 584. Ph. Am. Bap. Pub. Society. 90 cents. 

Moss, Lemuel [Ed.]. Tlie Baptists and the National Centenary. A 
Record of Christian Work. 8vo. Ph. 1876. $1.75. 

Stewart, J. D. The History of the Free Will Baptists, for HaK a 
Century. 12mo. pp. 479. Dover, N.H. Free AVHl Baptist 
Printing Establishment. 1862. 

Christian. 

Summerbell, N. History of the Christians. Dayton, O. Christian 
Publishing Association. 

CONGHEGATIONAL. 

Bacon, Leonard. The Genesis of the New England Churches. 

8vo. N.Y. H. $2.50. 
Dexter, Henry Martyn. Congregationalism. 8vo. pp. 1082. N.Y. 
H. 1880. 16.00. 

A complete bibliography is appended. Cf. Waddinaton (Loudon, 
1880) and Punchard (Boston, 1805-80). These three are the best 
authorities on general Congregational history. 



368 A SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY OF 

Friends. 
Hodgson, Wm. The Society of Friends in the Nineteenth Century. 
8vo. 2 V. pp. 349, 441. Ph. Smith, English & Co. 1875. 
Cf. Pcnn and Wacjstaff. 

Lutheran. 

Schmucker, S. S. The American Lutheran Chiu'ch, Historically, 
Doctrinally, and Practically Delineated in Several Occasional 
Discourses. 12mo. Ph. 1852. 75 cents. 

Cf. Hazeline (Zanesville, O., 1846) and Cong. Qiiar., 1862, article 

Lutheran Church in the United States. 

Seiss, Joseph A. Ecclesia Lutherana. A Brief Survey of the 
Lutheran Church. 32d edition. 12mo. Ph. Luth. Bd. of 
Pub. 1867. (Cf. Krauth. ^5.00.) 

Methodist. 

Simpson, Matthew. Cyclopedia of Methodism. Revised edition. 
4to. pp. 1031. Ph. L. II. Evarts. 1880. 
Valuable as a work of reference. 

Stevens, Abel History of Methodism. 3 v. 12mo. N.Y. Meth- 
odist Book Concern. 1858-61. #4.50. 

Id. History of the Methodist Episcopal Church in the United 
States of America. 4 v. 12mo. N.Y. Methodist Book Con- 
cern. 1864. #6.00. 

Dr. Stevens is the highest authority on Methodist history. 

Wood, E. M. Methodism and the Centennial of American Inde- 
pendence. With a brief History of the Various Branches of 
Methodism, and full Statistical Tables. 12mo. pp. 412. N.Y. 
Nelson & Phillips. 1876. $1.-50. 

Cf. Atkinson, John : Centennial History of American Methodism, 

N.Y., 1884. $2.00. 

Mormon. 

Stenhouse, (Mrs.) T. B. H. Rocky Mountain Saints: History 
of the Mormons. 8vo. pp. xxiv, 761. N.Y. App. 1873. 
15.00. 

Tucker, Pomeroy. Origin, Rise, and Progress of Mormonism. 
12mo, N.Y. App. 1867, ^1.25. 



ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 369 

Moravian. 

Schweinitz, E. de. The IMoravian Manual, containing an Account 
of the Protestant Chui-ch of the Moravian United Brethren. 
12mo. Ph. 1869. |1.00. 

Cf. Reichel, Memorials. Ph., Lip., 1870. 

Presbyterian. 
Gillett, E. H. History of the Presbyterian Church in the United 

States of America. 2 v. Ph. 1864. f.5.00. 
HoiUje, Charles. The Constitutional History of the Presbyterian 

Church in the United States. 8vo. Ph. Presb. Bd. of Pub. 

13.00. 
Presbyterian Reunion: A Memorial Volume, 1837-1871. By the 

Rev. Drs. Miller, Stearns, Sprague, Humphrey, Adams, Jacohus, 

Foioler, Hall, Irving, Hatfield, and Knox, and the Rev. G. S. 

Plumley. Illustrated. Large 8vo. pp. 568. N.Y. Lent & 

Co. 1870. 

Valuable for the history of Old School and New School Presby- 
terian Churches from the separation in 1837 to the reunion in 1871. 

Protestant Episcopal. 
Perry, W. S. [editor in chief]. The History of the American 
Episcopal Church, 1587-1883. 2 v. 4to. Illus. B. O. 

In course of preparation. It will surpass all existing histories of 

the Protestant Episcopal Church. 

Wilberforce, (Bp.) S. A History of the Protestant Episcopal 
Church in America. 2d edition. 12mo. N.Y. Stanford & 
Swords. 1846. 12mo. pp. 3.57. 1849. Pott. $3.50. 
Cf. White's Memoirs, 183(j, and Hawk's Contributions, 1836. 

Reformed Episcopal. 

Aycrigg, Benjamin. Memoirs of the Reformed Episcopal Church, 
and of the Protestant Episcopal Church, with Contemporary 
Reports respecting these and the Church of England, extracted 
from the Public Press. 5th edition. 8vo. pp. Ixvi, 373. N.Y. 
and Passaic, N.J. Aycrigg. 1880. 

A collection of materials. Indexed. This work is not of a popular 
character, but will be invaluable to future historians of the Protes- 
tant Episcopal and the Reformed Episcopal Churches. 



370 A SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY OF 

Cummins, {Mrs.) G. D. Memoir of G. D. Cummins, First Bishoj) 
of the Reformed Episcopal Church. 12mo. pp. 544. N.Y. 
Dodd, Mead, & Co. 1879. |2.50. 

It contains an excellent accoimt of the origin and organization of 

the Reformed Episcopal Church. 

Refokmed Church in America (Dutch). 
Demurest, David D. History and Characteristics of the Reformed 
Protestant Dutch Church. 12mo. pp. xxviii, 221. N.Y. 
185G, 1850. 11.00. 

Reformed Church in the United States (German). 
Mayer, Lewis. The Histoi-y of the German Reformed Chui'ch. 
Vol. I. Svo. pp. 477. Ph. Lip. 1851. 

Cf. article by E. V. Gerhart in Bib. Sac, vol. XX., 1863, 

Roman Catholic. 
Clarke, R. II. Lives of the Deceased Bishops of the Catholic Church 
in the United States. 2 v. Svo. N.Y. P. O'Shea. 1872. |8.00. 
Murray, J. 0. A Popular History of the Catholic Church in the 
United States. Svo. pp. G19. 2d edition. N.Y. Sadlier & 
Co. 187G. 12.50. 

An A^jpeudix contains valuable statistical tables and biographical 
sketches. Cf. Le Clerc;/, translated by <b7tt'«, Cin. (.'ii!12.00) ; and 
Parkman, Jesuits in North America. 

Shakers. 
Evans, F. W. Compendium of the Origin, History, etc., of the 
United Society of Believers in Christ's Second Coming. 16mo. 
N.Y. App. 1859. 

United Brethren. 
Lawrence, John. History of the Church of the United Brethren in 
Christ. 2 vols, in one. Svo. Dayton, O. U. B. Pub. House. 
$2.. 50. 

Cf. Spayth, Circleville, Ohio; Conference Office, 1851. 

Unitarian. 
Ellis, Geo. E. A Half Century of the Unitarian Controversy. B. 
American Unitarian Association. 1859. ^1.50. 

Cf. Ware, American Unitarian Biography. 2 v. B. 1850-51. 



ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 371 

Universalist. 
Thomas, Abel C. A Century of Universalism. B. Universalist 
Publishing House. 

Cf. Adams, Fifty Notable Years ; and Eddy, Universalism in 

America. 



VI. SPECIAL TOPICS. 

1. Art. 

Heaphy, Thomas. The Likeness of Christ. Being an Inquiry into 
the Verisimilitude of the Received Likeness of Our Blessed 
Lord. Edited by Wyke Bayliss. With 12 colored plates. 
Folio, pp. 78. L. David Bogue. 1880. £3 6s. 

Cf. Schuff, History of the Christian Church. N.Y. 1882. Vol. I, 

pp. 167-170. 

Jameson, (Mrs.} Anna. Sacred and Legendary Art. Portrait of 

Leonardo da Vinci. 2 v., 32mo, <$3.00; 6 v., 8vo, L., Longm., 

£5 15s. Gd. 
Popular. 
Jameson, (3Irs.) Anna, and Eastlake, (Lady). The History of Our 

Lord as Exenaplified in Works of Art. Illustrated. 2 v. L. 

Longm. 2d edition. 1865. 42s. 

Lubke, W. Ecclesiastical Art in Germany during the Middle Ages. 

High authority. 
Norton, C. E. Studies of Church Buildings in the Middle Ages. 
8vo. pp. 331. N.Y. H. 1880. $3.00. 

The result of careful study. Written in good style. 
Poole, Geo. A. History of Ecclesiastical Architecture in England. 

Svo. L. 1848. 13.50. 
^cott, G. G. Lectures on the Rise and Development of Mediajval 
Architecture. Illustrated. 2 v. 8vo. pp. xv, 365; xvi, 347. 
L. Murray. 1879. 42s. 
d. An Essay on the History of English Church Architecture, 
prior to the Separation of England from the Roman Obedience. 
Illustrated. 4to. pp. 195. L. Simpkin, Marshall, & Co. 
1881. 



372 A SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY OF 

Tyrwhitt, R. St. JoJin. The Art Teaching of the Primitive Chui-ch. 
L. Soc. 8vo. 7s. M. 

2. Biography. 
A. Biblical. — I. Lives of Christ. 

Ehrard, A. Wissenschaftliche Kritik der Evangelischen Ge- 
schichte. Condensed translation. 8vo. Ed. Clark. 1809. 
10s. M. 

Against Strauss, Bruno Bauer, etc. 

Ewald, H. Geschichte Christus' und seiner Zeit. (Vol. 5 of his His- 
tory of Israel.) Tr. by 0. Glover. Cambridge. Bell. 180.5. 9s. 

Farrar, Frederic W. Life of Christ. 2 v. L. 1874. About thirty 

editions have since appeared, many of them in America. One 

is illustrated. |4.00. 
Geikie, C. The Life and Words of Christ. L. Strahan & Co. 

1878. 2v. Illustrated. 30s. Several editions. N.Y. Munro. 

Pai:)er, 40 cts. 
Ilardioick, CJias. Christ and Other Masters. L. Macm. 4th 

edition. 1875. 10s. M. 

A comparison of Christ witli founders of Eastern religions. 

Keim, Theodore. Geschichte Jesu von Nazara. Zurich. 1807-72. 
3 V. Translated into English by Geldart and Ransom. L. 
W. & N. 2d edition. 1873-79. 2 v. 10s. Gd. each. 

Based chiefly upon Matthew. In the preparation of this work the 
Fourth Gospel was not used. 
Lange, John Peter. The Life of the Lord Jesus Christ : a Complete 
Examination of the Origin, Contents, and Connection of the 
Gospels. New edition. 4 v. 8vo. Ph. 1872. |10.00. 
By a distinguished German commentator. 
Neander,J. A. W. The Life of Jesus. Translated by iJ/t-CZiwioc^ 
and Blumenthal. N.Y. H. 1848. $2.50. 

"A positive refutation of Strauss." — P. Schaff. 
Pressense', E. de. Jesus Christ : His Times, Life, and Work. 4th 
edition. Revised. 8vo. L. 1871. |3.40. 
Written in reply to Renan. 



ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 373 

Renan, Ernest. Life of Jesus. Translated by E. Wilhour. 12mo. 
pp. 376. N.Y. Caiieton & Co. 1804, 1870. .$1.75. 

Renan professed to write without any other passion than a very- 
keen curiosity. "This book created even a greater sensation 
than the Lehen Jesu of Strauss, but is very superficial, and turns 
the gospel history into a novel with a self-contradictory and im- 
possible hero. Eloquent, fascinating, superficial, and contradic- 
tory."— P. ScHAFF. "In it the learning of the Orientalist vied 
with the enrapturing rhetoric of the fine writer to warp the judg- 
ment of sentimental amateurs." — J. F. Hurst in "Crook's & 
Hurst's Theological Encyclopaedia and Methodology." 

Strauss, D. F. Life of Jesus. Translated by Marian Evans 
(George Eliot). L. 1846. 3 v. Republished in N.Y., 1850. 
Authorized translation. 2d edition. 2 v. 8vo. pj). xxii, 440 ; 
iv, 439. L. W. & N. 1879. 24s. 
Refuted by Neander, q.v. 

Weiss, Bernard. The Life of Christ. Translated by John W. Hope- 
3v. 8vo. Ed. 1883-4. $3.00 each. 

Liberal evangelical. Dr. Weiss is professor of theology at Berlin. 

Vounf/, ./. The Christ of History. L. & N.Y. 1855. 5th edi- 
tion. 1808. L. Strahan. 6s. 
Evangelical. Popular. 

These are excellent lives of Christ, original and translated, by 
Lyman Abbott, S. J. Andreios, H. W. Beeclier, C. E. Caspar i, 
Howard Crosby, C. F. Deems, Z. Eddy, C. J. Ellicott, Fleet- 
wood, Wm. Hanna, Carl Hase, Mrs. Jameson ("as exemplified 
in works of art '*), E. H. Plumptre, Clir. Fr. Schmid, D. ScJienkel, 
and /. R. Seeley. Cf . G. UJdhorn : Modern Kepresentatives of 
the Life of Jesus. Translated by Giinnell. lOmo. B. L. & B. 
1868. 

II. Lives of the Apostles. 

Baur, Ferd. Clir. Paul the Apostle of Jesus Christ. Translated 
by Allan Menzies. 2 v. L. W. & N. 1873 and 1875. 10s. 
ChI. each. 

The standard work of the Tiibingeu school. 



374 A SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY OF 

Conybeare and Howson. Life and Epistles of St. Paul. L. 1853. 
Many reprints, both English and American. 

A standard work ; of especial value to Christian teachers. 

Farrar, F. W. Life and Work of St. Paul. 2 v. L. & N.Y. 
1879, and other editions. N.Y. Funk & Wagnalls. 1880. 
Paper, 50 cts. 

Canon Farrar is a learned and rhetorical writer. 

Pearson {Bp.). Annales Paulini. Works. Also separately. 
Cambridge. 1824. 

Renan, E. St. Paul. Translated by Ingersoll Lochivood. 12mo. 
pp. 422. N.Y. Carleton. 1869. $1.75. 
Entertaining, but fanciful and illogical. 

Tholuck, Aug. The Life, Cliaracter, and Style of the Apostle 
Paul. In Selections from German Literature (pp. 1-72). Trans- 
lated hy B. B. Edwards and E. A. Park. 8vo. pp. iv, 472. 
Andover. Gould, Newman, & Saxon, 1839. 

B. General. — I. Collections. 

Baring-Gould, Sabine. Lives of the Saints. 15 v. 12mo. N.Y. 

Pott, Young, & Co. 1879. |2.50 each. 
Buder, Alban. Lives of the Fathers, Martyrs, and other Saints. 
12 V. 24mo. L. Duffy. 1806. First American edition, 2 v. 
8vo. Baltimore. J. Murphy & Co. 1850. $7.00. 
Roman Catholic. 
Hook, W. F. Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury from St. 
Augustine to Juxon. 12 v. 8vo. L. R. Bentley & Son. 
1860-70. 15s. each ; vol. 12, 21s. 

In two series. The last volume is an index to the others. 
Piper, Ferdinand. Lives of the Leaders of our Church Universal 
from the Days of the Succession of the Apostles to the Present 
Time. Translated from the German, with valuable American 
additions, by McCracken. 8vo. J. & T. Clark. 1880. 2 v. 
pp. 430, 443.' $3.00. 

For popular use, this is the host book of Christian biography. Its 
tone is Protestant, but not sectarian. 
Sprague, W. B. See General Histories, under United States. 



ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 375 

Stephen, (Sir) J. Essays in Ecclesiastical Biography. 1st edition. 
IS")!) ; 4th, 1860. L. Longni. 7s. ikl. 
Few subjects, but well treated. 

Tulloch, John. Leaders of the Reformation : Luther, Calvin, Lati- 
mer, and Knox. 2d edition. 8vo. Ed. W. Blackwood & 
Sons. 1860. 3d edition, enlarged, |3.00. 

IT. Individual. 
Ambrose, St. R. Thornton. Soc. 2s. 
Anselm, St. By R. W. Church. Macm. $1.75. 
Arnold, Thomas. A. P. Stanleij. Scr. 1880. |2.50. 
Augustine, St. E. L. Cutts. Soc. 1880. Cf. Clark, Pott, 75 cts. 
Id. Possidius (personal friend of Augustine) ; Pressense, in Smith 

and Wace; .S'c^q^, 1854 ; Poriarty and Tidloch, in Encycl. Brit. 
Basil, St. R. T. Smith. Soc. 1879. 2s. 
Becket. /. A. Froude in Nineteenth Century, 1877. 
Id. By E. A. Freeman in Contemporary Review, 1878. 

A reply to Froude's article in the Nineteenth Cent. ; more favorable. 
Bede. G. F. Browne. Soc. 2s. 

Calvin. Wm. Blackburn. 2 books. Ph. Presb. Bd. 70 and 75 cts. 
Chrysostom, John. Aug. Neander. Translated by Siapleto7i. 

IBohn. 1845. 
Id. W. R. W. Stephens. L., 1872; 2d ed., 1880. L., Murray, 12.s-. 
Constantine. E. L. Cutts. L., Soc. N.Y., 1881. 
Erasmus. R. B. Drummond. 2 v. S. & E. 21s. 
Farel. Wm. Blackburn. Ph. Presb. Bd. of Pub. #1.50. 
Fox, George. /. Marsh. B. 1847. 
Id. S. M. Janney. Ph. Lip. )il.25. 
Gregory the Great. /. Barmby. Soc. 2s. 
Gregory VIL A. F. Villemani. 3 v. Bentley. 20s. 

Huss, John. E. H. Gillett. 2 v. N.Y. 18G4. |7.00. 

A learned monograph. 
Id. A. H. Wratislaw. L. Soc. 3s. Qd. 



376 A SELECT BIBLIOGllAPHY OF 

Hutten, Ulrichvon. D.F.Strauss. L. Daldy & Isbister. 1874. 10s. 6J. 
Jerome. E. L. Cutis. 12mo. Soc. 1878. 2s. 
eTulian. Randall. L. 1879. 

Kempis, Thomas h., and the Brothers of the Common Life. S. 
Kettlewell. 8vo. 2 v. N.Y. Put. 1882. .f8.n0. 

Knox, John. Thomas McCrie. Ph. Presb. Bd. of Pub. $2.00. 

Cf. Carlyle, Hero Worship. 
Laud. Peter Bayne in the Chief Actors in the Puritan Revohition. 

Originally in the Contemporary Review. Cf. Mozleifs Essays, 

2 v., L., 24:S.; and /. E. T. Roger's Historical Gleanmgs, L., 

Macm., 11.75. 
Leo the Great. C. H. Gore. Soc. 2s. 
Louis, St., and Calvin. F. Guizot. 8vo. Macm. 6s. 
Luther, ylwdm (sti'ongly denunciatory); Peter Bayne , T. Carlyle, 

in Hero Woi'ship ; /. A. Froude (Longm., 1883); Julius Kmstlin 

(Longm., IGs.) ; Rein, based on Kcestlin and translated by Beh- 

ringer (N.Y., Funk & Wagnalls, 25 cts. and $1.00) ; and J. H. 

Treadwell (Put., fl.OO). Cf. Essays by Mozley. 
Patrick, St. Wm. M. Blackburn. Ph. Presb. Bd. of Pub. $1.00. 
Savonarola. W. R. Clark. 3s. 6^/. N.Y., 1879, Pott, |1.50. 
Id. Villari. 
Schleiermacher, F. E. Autobiography and Letters. L. S. & E. 

1860. 
Sixtus V. Baron Hubner. L. Longm. 24s. 
Swedenborg. Hobart, B., 1832; R. L. Tafel (translated; the most 

complete) ; Worcester, B., R., 1883. $2.00. 
Theresa, St. L. Macm. $2.00. 
Wesley, John. Robert Southey, withuoteshy S. T. Coleridge. N.Y. 

1820. 
Id. Luke Tyerman. 3 v. N.Y. H. 1872. $7.50. 

The best that has yet been written. 
Id. R. Denny Urlin. (The Churchman's Life of Wesley.) L. 

Soc. 3s. GfZ. Cf. ./. Hampson, 2 v. ; H. Moore, 2 v. ; and R. 

Watso7i (best edition, with notes in reply to Southey, 6s.). 



ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 377 

Whitefield, George. Luke Tyerman. 2 v. N.Y. Randolph & Co. 
1878. 12.00. 

Wyclif . G. V. Lechler, tr. by Peter Lorimer. 2 v. L. Paul. 2\s. 

Id. J. E. T. Rogers. Vol. II. of Historical Gleanings. L. Macm. 
11.75. 

Zwingli. Jean Groh. Translated. 12mo. N.Y. Funk & Wag- 
nails. 25 cts. and fl.OO. Cf. Blackhurn. Presb. Bd., $1.25. 

Xavier. Coleridge. Also Venn, and Bouhours (translated by 
Dryden, 1688). 

3. Church and State. 

Bryce, James. Holy Roman Empire. L. Macm. 7s. 6d. 

" Invaluable for clearing up the relations of Germany and Rome." 
— C. K. Adams. 

Geffcken, Heinrich. Church and State ; their Relations Historically 

Considered. Translated and edited, with the assistance of the 

author, by Edioard Fairfax Taylor. 2 v. 8vo. L. 1877. 42s. 

" For knowledge, acumen, and fairness, the work is worthy of high 

praise." — C. K. Adams. The author, a conservative Protestant, 

is professor of international law in the University of Strashurg. 

Thompson, R. W. The Papacy and the Civil Power. 8vo. N.Y. 
H. 1876. $3.00. 

"Carefully prepared. . . . A powerful indictment of the temporal 
policy of the Catholic Church. It contains several ecclesiastical 
documents that enhance its value. ... It is the best easily acces- 
sible sketch of the subject of which it treats." — C. K. Adams. 

4. Councils. 

Bungener, L. F. History of the Council of Trent. Edited by 
John McClintock. 12mo. N.Y. H. 1855. |1.50. 

Hefele, C. J. A History of the Councils of the Church. 4 v. have 
been translated by W. R. Clark and H. N. Oxenham. Ed. 
T. & T. Clark. 1871-1884. #4.80 each. 

By a Roman Catholic bishop of great learning. Independent, 
origiual , authoritative. Vol. V. covers the Nestorian and Eutychian 
controversies. Cf. £.//. 2/a/i(Zo/i (Anglican). 12mo. L. 184G. 



378 A SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY OF 

I'usey, E. B. The Councils of the Church, from the Council of 
Jerusalem, a.d. 51, to the Council of Constantinople, a.d. 381 ; 
chiefly as to their Constitution, Init also as to their Object and 
History. 8vo. L. 1857. |3.50. 

By the Tractarian leader. Died 1882. 
Sarpi,P. Council of Trent. Tr.hy N. Brent. 4to. pp. 889. L. 1G7G. 
" A work of genius, concerning which see Dr. Johnson's account 
in his ' Lives of Eminent Persons ' ; also a charming account in 
Howell's 'Venetian Life.'" — C. K. Adams. "Ranked by Mac- 
aulay with Thucidides." — W. F. Allen. 

5. Creeds. 

Schqff] P. The Creeds of Christendom, with a History and Critical 

Notes. 8vo. 3 v. T. The History of Creeds ; II. The Greek 

and Latin Creeds, with Translations ; III. The Evangelical 

Protestant Creeds, with Translations. N.Y. H. 1877. 115.00. 

Of great value. 

6. Doctrines. 

Alger, William R. A Critical History of the Doctrine of a Future 
Life. 1st edition, Ph., 1864. 6th edition, 8vo, pp. 676, N.Y., 
Widdleton, 1869. New edition, with additions, 1878, |3.50. 
A valuable bibliography, by Dr. Ezra Abbot, is appended. 
Donaldson, James. A Critical History of Christian Literatm-e and 
Doctrine, from the Death of the Apostles to the Nicene Council. 
3v. 8vo. London. 1864-66. ^12.00. 
Darner, J. A . History of the Development of the Doctrine of the 
Person of Christ. With a Review of the Controversies on the 
Subject in Britain since the Middle of the Seventeenth Century. 
Translated by W. Lindsay Alexander, D.D., and D. W. Simon, 
D.D. 5v. 8vo. pp. xviii, 467; viii, 544; 456; viii, 462; 
xxviii, 502. Ed. T. & T. Clark. 1862-64. £2 12s. M. 

" By far the most learned and instructive discussion of the theme 
wliich has ever been undertaken. . . . The book is a fine example 
of the mingling of intellectual freedom with due reverence, and of 
the spirit of science with genuine devoutness." — G. P. Fisher, in 
the The Independent, July 24, 1884. 



ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 379 

Id. History of Protestant Theology; particularly in Germany. 
Translated by G. Rohson and Sophia Taylor. 2 v. 8vo. pp. 
xxiii, 444; 511. Ed. T. & T. Clark. 1871. 21s. 
By a popular aud profouud theologian, who died in 1884. 

Hagenhach, K. R. Text-Book of the History of Doctrine. The 
Edinburgh translation of C. W. Bush, revised, with additions 
from the fourth Gei-man edition, by Henry B. Smith, D.D. 2 v. 
Svo. pp. 478, 558. N.Y. Sheldon & Co. 1861-G2. ^i\.m. 

The additions are from Neander, Gieseler, Baur, etc. An edition 
of Hageubach's History of Christian Doctrine, translated from the 
fifth German edition, with an introduction by E. II. Planiptre, is 
published by T. & T. Clark, Edinburgh. Vol. II. Svo. pp. 4G6. 
1880. ^3.00. 

Neander, A . Lectures on the History of Christian Dogmas. Trans- 
lated by J. E. Ryland. 2 v. 12mo. pp. 356, 204. L. H. G. 

Bohn. 1858. $3.00. 

Mackay, R. W. The Tubingen School and its Antecedents. A 
Review of the History and Present Condition of IModern The- 
ology. Svo. L. W. & N. 1803. 

Reuss, Edivard. History of Cliristian Theology in the Apostolic 
Age. Translated by Annie Harwood. With preface and notes 
hy R.W.Dale. 2 v. 8vo. L. Ilodder & Stoughton. 1872-74. 24s. 

Shedd, W. G. T. A History of Christian Doctrines. 3d edition. 
2v. Svo. pp. viii, 412; vi, 508. N.Y. Scr. 1SG9. .$5.00. 

Clear, Calvinistic, and vigorous. Dwells on theologj^ anthropol- 
ogy, and soteriology, and entirely omits the doctrines that relate 
to the sacraments. There are other important omissions, which 
greatly lessen its value. 

Tulloch, John. Rational Tlieology and Christian Philosopliy in 
England in the Seventeenth Century. 2 v. Svo. Ed. Black- 
woods. 1872. 28s. 

Wiggers, G. F. An Historical Presentation of Augustinianism 
and Pelagianism from the Original Sources. Translated from 
the German, with notes and additions, by Ralph Emerson. Svo. 
pp. 383. Andover. Draper. 1840. |1.25. 



380 A SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY OF 

7. Fiction. 
(^Illustrating Periods of Church History.) 

Anonymous. Arius, the Libyan. 12mo. N.Y. App. 1884. #1.50. 
Entertaining, but in many historical points inaccurate. See Boston 
Watchman for Aug. 14, 1884. 
Anonymous. The Days of Knox. L. 1869. $3.00. 
Banvard, Joseph. Priscilla ; or, Trials for the Truth. An Historic 

Tale of the Puritans and the Baptists. Svo. pp. 406. B. 1855. 
Bungener, L. The Priest and the Huguenot. An historical novel 

of the time of Louis XV. B. Lothrop. 1874. 1^1. .50. 
Id. The Preacher [Bourdaloue] and the King [Louis XIV.]. #1.50. 
Carpenter, Boyd. Narcissus. A Tale of Early Christian Times. 

Svo. L. Soc. 3s Gd. 

By the author of " The Chronicles of the Schonberg-Cotta Family." 
Charles, (Mrs.) Elizabeth. Diary of Kitty Trevilyan. A Story of 

the Times of Whitfield and the Wesleys. 12nio. pp. 304. L. 

T. Nelson & Sons. 1865. N.Y. Dodd. 1864. $1.00. 
Clarke, James Freeman. The Legend of Thomas Didymus, the 

Jewish Sceptic. [Life of Christ as it appeard to co-tempo- 
raries.] 12mo. pp. 448. B. L. & S. 1881. $1.75. 
C7-oly, Geo. Salathiel. Cincinnati. U. P. James. $1.50. 
Davies, Samuel. From Dawn to Dark in Italy. A Tale of the 

Reformation in the 16th Century. Ph. Presb. Bd. of Pub. $1.25. 
Ehers, G. Homo Sum. [A tale of the early Anchorites.] N.Y. 

Munro. 10 cents. 
Eliot, George [Marion Evans']. Romola. [Savonorola.] N.Y. Munro. 

15 cents. 

" Deserving all the high encomiums it has received." — N. Porter. 

Hale, E. E. In His Name. [Waldenses.] B. 1877. 40 cents. 

Kingsley, C. Hypatia. [Alexandria.] L. and N.Y. Macm. $1.75. 

Lockhart, J. G. Valerius. Ed. and L. Blackwood & Son. 1849. 3s. 
Excellent. 

Mille,J.de. Helena's Household. 8vo. N.Y. Carter. 1869. $1.50. 
" Gives an interesting and faithful picture of the workings of 
Christianity in a Roman household, and interweaves also much of 
the history of a part of the first and second centuries. " — N. Porter. 



ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 381 

Newman, {Cardinal) J. H. Callista. 8vo. L. B. &0. 1873. 5s. Orf. 
Reade,C. Cloister and the Hearth. [Germany, 15tli cent.] 2s. Gd. 
Spindler, C. The Jew. [Council of Constance, 1-114-18.] N.Y. 

H. 75 cents. 
Wallace, Lew. Ben-Hui", a Tale of the Christ. N.Y. H. ^1.50. 

Recognized as a work of unusual worth. 
Ware, W. Aurelian, Julian, and Zenobia. 3 v. N.Y. Miller. 

$2.00 each. 

" Excellent examples of good historical tales of the earlier Christian 
centuries." — N. Porter. 
Wehh, (Mrs.). Pomponia; or, the Gospel in Cajsar's Household. 

[Rome, Nero, and Britain.] Ph. Presb. Bd. of Pub. $1.25. 
Id. Alvpius of Tagaste. Ph. Presb. Bd. of Pub. $1.25. 
Wiseman, (Cardinal) N. Fabiola. [The Catacombs.] N.Y. Sadlier. 
$1.50. 

8. Liturgies. 
Hammond, C. E. Liturgies, Eastern and Western : being a Re- 
print of the Texts, either Original or Translated, of the most 
representative Liturgies of the Chm-ch from various sources. 
With Introduction, Notes, and a Liturgical Glossary. 12mo. L. 
Macm. 1878. 10s. M. 
Humphrey, Wm. G. An Historical and Explanatory Treatise on 
the Book of Common Prayer. 12nio, cloth. L. Bell & Sons. 
1856, 1875. 4s. 6d. 
Excellent. 
Maskell, W. The Ancient Liturgy of the Church of England, ac- 
cording to the Uses of Sarum, Bangor, York, and Hereford, and 
the Modern Roman Liturgy, arranged in parallel columns. 3d 
ed. 8vo. pp. Ixxxiv, 338. Oxford. Clarendon Press. 1882. 15s. 
Neale, J. M. Essays on Liturgiology and Church History. 8vo. 
pp. 527. L. Saunders, Otley, & Co. 1863 and 18G7. 

Scholarly. Dr. P. Schaff says of Neale that he was a "most 
learned Anglican ritualist and liturgist, who studied the Eastern 
liturgies daily for thirty years, and almost knew them by heart. . . . 
The ? . . work of . . . the English Episcopal divine, Freeman, . . . 
treats much of the old liturgies, with a predilection for the AVest- 
eru, while Neale has an especial reverences for the Eastern ritual." 



382 A SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY OF 

Neale, J. M. The Liturgies of St. Mark, St. James, St. Clement, 
St. Chrysostom, St. Basil, or according to the use of the 
Chiu'ches of Alexandria, Jerusalem, Constantinople. L. 1859 
(in the Greek original, and the same liturgies in an English 
translation, with an introduction and appendices, also in L., 1859). 
2d edition. 12mo. L. Hayes. 1868. 6s. 
Of permauent value. 

9. Martyrs. 

See works by Fox (standard, comprehensive, Protestant ; best edi- 
tion by G. Townsend, 8 v., L., 1843), Bulkley, Chatcauhriand 
(translated by 0. W. Wight; not critical, very poetical), and 
Pressen.s-e' (translated, L., 1871). 

10. Miracle Plays and Mysteries. 

See Wrn. Hone, 1828 ; J. P. Jackson (Passion Play at Oberammer- 
gau, historical introduction), 1873, and Marriott (A Collection 
of English Miracle Plays or Mysteries), 1858. 

11. Missions. 

Christlicb, Theodor. Protestant Foreign Missions. Translated from 
the Fourth German edition, by David Allen Read. 16mo, pp. 
264, N.Y., Randolph, 1880; 16mo, pp. 280, B., Cong. Pub. Soc. 
$1.00. 

Compact, but complete. Sufficieut for the needs of the general 

reader. 

Maclear, G. F. Apostlesof Mediaeval Europe. 8vo. L. Macm. 4s. 6(/. 

Protestant; standard. 
Merivale, C. Conversion of the West. 5 v. Maps. 16mo. 

I. The Continental Teutons, by C. Merivale, pp. ISO ; II. The 

Celts, by G. F. Maclear, pp. 189 ; HI. The English, by G. F. 

Maclear, pp. 186 ; IV. The Northmen, by G. F. Maclear, pp. 202; 

V. The Sclavs, by G. F. Maclear, pp. ii, 202. L. Soc. N.Y. 

Pott, Young, & Co. 1879. 60 cts. each. 
Seelye, J. H. Christian Missions. 12mo. pp. 207. N.Y. Dodd, 

Mead, & Co. 1876. $1.00. 



ECCLESIASTICAL IIISTOIIY. 383 

Smith, Thomas. History of Mediaeval Missions. 12iiio. L. Hamilton. 
1880. 4s. Qd. 

Protestant; standard. 

12. Monastic Orders. 

The development of Monastic institutions is impartially and skil- 
fully traced by Milman, in his History of Latin Christianity. 
Montalembert, Count de. The Monks of the West, from St. Bendict 

to St. Bernard. Translated from the French. 7 v. Svo. Ed. 

and L. Blackwoods. 1860-70. Vols. 6 and 7, 25s. B. Noonan. 

2 V. $6.00. 

" The ablest plea that has ever been made for the several orders of 
monks, being at once scholarly, sympathetic, and conscientious." 
— C. K. Adams. Cf. Sir James Stephen s Ecclesiastical Essays, 
and Mrs. Jameson's Legends of the Monastic Orders. 
Rujfner, H. The Fathers of the Desert ; or, an Account of the 

Origin and Practice of Monkery among the Heathen Nations, 

its passage into the Church ; and some wonderful stories of the 

fathers concerning the prindtive monks and hermits. 2 v. N.Y. 

1850. 

The author, a Presbyterian, is by no means friendly to monastic 
institutions. 

13. Rationalism. 

Hurst, John F. History of Rationalism. Embracing a Survey of 

the Present State of Protestant Theology. With api^endix of 

literature. Svo. N.Y. Scr. 1865, 9th rev. ed. 1875. f3.50. 

Lecky, W. E. H. History of tlie Rise and Influence of the Spu-it of 

Rationalism in Europe. 2 v. 8vo. L. & N.Y. Ajip. 1865. 81.00. 

"His sympathies are obviously rationalistic, though he usually 

succeeds in maintaining a moderate and judicious spirit." — C. K. 

Adams. 

11. Reference Books. 
Ahhott, Lyman, and Conant, T. J. A Dictionary of Religious 
Knowledge, for Popular and Professional Use ; comprising full 
Information on Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Sub- 
jects. With nearly One Thousand Maps and Illustrations. 
Royal Svo. pp. 1000 +. N.Y. H. $6.00. 
Adapted to the needs of general students. 



384 A SELECT BIBLIOGKAPHY OF 

Bingham, Joseph. Origines Ecclesiasticse ; or, the Antiquities of 
the Cliristian Church. With two sermons and two letters on 
the Nature and Necessity of Absolution. Edited hy R. Bingham. 
8vo. L. Macm. Also in 7 vols, in Bingham's complete works. 

9 V. 1840. L. W. Straker. 1843. 10 v. Oxford. Clarendon 
Press. 1855. £3 Gs. 

Standard. 
Blunt, J. H. Dictionary of Sects, Heresies, Ecclesiastical Parties, 
and Schools of Thought. Imperial 8vo. pp. 048. i|10.00. 
Anglican. Not always unprejudiced and impartial. 
Edwards, B. B., and Broion, J. N. Encyclop.Todia of Religious 
Knowledge ; comprising Dictionaries of the Bible, Theology, 
Biography, Religious Denominations, Ecclesiastical History, 
and Missions. Illustrated. Imperial 8vo. pp. 1276. Brat- 
tleboro, Vt. 1850. 

" This valuable work comin-ises a complete library in itself, on tlie 
above subjects, from the most authentic sources ; with copious 
original articles by the ablest American writers, — Episcopal, Con- 
gregationalist, Presbyterian, Methodist, and Baptist." — Nicholas 
TrUbner, in his " Bibliographical Guide to American Literature," 
published in London, 1859. Now superseded, in most points, by 
Abbott aud C'onant, MeClintock and Strong, and Schaff-IIerzog. 

McClintoch, John, and Strong, J. A. Cycloppedia of Biblical, Theo- 
logical, and Ecclesiastical Literature. Maj)s. Illustrated. 

10 V. 8vo. N.Y. H. 1867 sqq. |5.00 each. 

Contains many articles on American biography aud history, — too 
large a proportion being upon Methodist subjects, as might be ex- 
jiected from the clmrcli relations of its editors. Notwithstanding 
this imjjerfectiou, and the inferior literary qualifications of some 
of its contributors, it is the largest and most useful work of the 
kind that has yet appeared in the English language. 

Schaff, Pldlip. A Religious Encyclopjedia ; or. Dictionary of Bib- 
lical, Historical, Doctrinal, and Practical Theology. 3 v. Royal 
8vo. N.Y. Funk & Wagnalls. 1882-84. .$6.00 each. 

A condensed and otherwise greatly modified translation of the 
Real-Encyclopiidie fiir Protestantische Theologie und Kirche, by 
Herzog, Pitt, and Haucl-. In the work of translation, Dr. Schaff 
was aided by his son, />. S. Schaff, aud Samuel Jackson. The work 
i§ couyenieut and authoritative. 



ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 385 

Smith, Henry B. History of the Church of Christ in (16) Chrono- 
logical Tables. X.Y. Scr. 1860. 15.00. 

Useful as an introductiou to the study of church histoi-y ; also valua- 
ble for reference and review. Nowhere can be found so clear and 
impartial an outline of American church history to a.d. 1858. 
Smith, William. Bible Dictionary. 3 v. L. 1860-64. Ameri- 
can edition much enlarged and improved by H. Hackett and E. 
Abbot. 4 v. pp.3667. N.Y. Hurd & Houghton. 1868-1870. 
120.00. 

Valuable for topics in early church history. An excellent bibli- 
ography of ecclesiastical history concludes the article Church. 
Another standard Bible Dictionary is Kitto's, edited by W. L. 
Alexander. 3 v. Ed. A. & C. Black. 1862-65. £2 2s. 

Smith, W., and Cheetham, S. A Dictionary of Christian Antiquities. 
The History, Institutions, and Antiquities of the Christian 
Chm-ch ; Being a Continuation of the " Dictionary of the Bible." 
2 V. Royal 8vo. L. Murray. 1875-1880. 87.00. 
All that Dr. Smith has edited is valuable. 
Smith, William, and Wace, Henry. A Dictionary of Christian 
Biography, Literatm-e, Sects, and Doctrines. 5 v., royal Svo, L., 
Murray, 31s. M. each. 4 v., B., L. & B., 1877 sqq., $5.50 each. 
'.' By far the best patristic biographical dictionary in the English 
or any other language. A noble monument of the learning of the 
Church of England, to which nearly all the contributors belong." 

— P. SCHAFF. 

15. Sacred Seasons. 
Grant, Alex. H. The Church Seasons, Historically and Poetically 
Illustrated. 2d edition. Revised. 12mo. pp. 506. N.Y. 
Whittaker. 1881. 11.50. 

16. Symbolism. 
Audsley, W. and G. Handbook of Christian Symbolism. Illus- 
trated. Small 4to. pp. x, 145. L. Day & Son. 1865. 12s. Qd. 
O'Brien, John. A History of the Mass and its Ceremonies in the 
Eastern and the Western Church. 12mo. N.Y. 4th edition. 
Revised, pp. xix, 414. Cath. Pub. Soc. Co. 1879. $1.50. 
More comprehensive than its title would indicate. It aiuLs to point 
out the symbolical meaning of all the ceremonies of the eastern and 
the western churches. 



APPENDIX. 



CRUSADES. 

As originally piiblislied, this bibliography contained, under 
" Crusades " (p. 357), a reference to Professor W. F, Allen's 
general bibliograpliy, which was included in the same volume. 
Professor Allen gives the following authorities : — 

Cox, (Sir) G. W. The Crusades. (Epoch Series.) N.Y. Scr. $1.00. 
A short history, well written. 

Gray, G. Z. The Children's Crusade. B. Houghton. $1.50. 

Michaud,J.F. History of the Crusades. 4 v. N.Y. Redfield. |3.75. 
Standard. 

Syhel, H. von. History and Literatui'e of the Crusades. C. & H. 
10s. Gd. 

Scholarly. 



INDEX TO AUTHORS. 



PAGE. 

Abbot, E 352, 385 

Abbott, L 373, 383 

Adams 371 

Alger 378 

Allen 345 

Alzog 345 

Andrews 352,373 

Anonymous . . . 353,376,380 

Arnold 346 

Atkinson 368 

Audin ........ 376 

Audslcy, G 385 

Audsley, W 385 

Aycrigg 369 

Bacon 367 

Backus 367 

Badger 345 

Baird, H. M 364 

Baird, K 365,366 

Balmes 358 

Banvard 380 

Baring-Gould 358, 374 

Barmby 375 

Baumgarten 350 

Baur 350, 352, 373 

Bayliss 371 

Bayne 376 

Beard 361 

Bede 362 

Beeclier 373 

Belcher 366 



PAGE. 

Bingham, J 384 

Bingham, R 384 

Blackburn .... 346, 375, 376 

Blunt 350,362,384 

Bonhours 377 

Bossuet 359 

Brewer 363 

Brown, J. N 384 

Browne, G. F 375 

Brownlow 354 

Bryce 356 

Bulkley 382 

Bungener 377, 380 

Butler 374 

Carlyle 361, 376 

Carpenter 380 

Caspar! 373 

Charles (Mrs.) 380 

Cliateaubriand 382 

Choules 364 

Church 356,375 

Christlieb 382 

Clark, W. R 376 

Clarke, J. F 380 

Clarke, R. II 370 

Cobbett 362 

Coleridge 376,377 

Conant 383 

Conybeare 374 

Cox 358,386 

Creighton 356 



388 



INDEX TO AUTxiORS. 



PAGE. 

Cricliton 366 

Croly 380 

Crooks 343 

Crosby 373 

Cummins (Mrs.) 370 

Cutts 375,376 

D'Agincourt 354 

Dale 379 

D'Aubigno. . . . 359,365,366 

Davies 380 

Davis (Mrs.) 344 

Deems 373 

Delitzsch 350 

Demarest . 370 

Dexter 307 

Dixon 362 

Dullinger . . 346,351,355,358 

Donaldson 355, 378 

Dorner 378,379 

Dowling 343 

Drummond 375 

Eastlake (Lady) 371 

Ebers ........ 380 

Ebrard .372 

Eddy 373 

Edwards ....... 384 

"Eliot, George" (Marion 

Evans) 380 

Ellicott 373 

Ellis 370 

Emerson 379 

Eusebius 351 

Evans, F. W 370 

Evans (Miss) 380 

Evagrius 352 

Ewald 372 

Farrar 351,372,374 

Fisher 351,359 



PAGE. 

Fleetwood 373 

Fox 382 

Freeman 375 

Froude 359,375,376 

Fuller 362 

Geffcken 377 

Geikie . . . .363,372 

Gerhai , ... 370 

Gibbon 351 

Giesele. 346 

Gillett 362,369,375 

Gore 376 

Grant 385 

Gray 386 

Greene 356 

Grob 377 

Guericke 346 

Guizot 376 

Hackett 385 

ITaddan 363 

Hagenbach ..... c^.' i 379 

Hale 388 

Hallam .^56 

Hammond ... ... 881 

Hampson 376 

Hanna 373 

Hardwick . . 347,356,359,372 

Hase 347, 373 

Hatch 351 

Hauck 384 

Hausser 359 

Hawks 369 

Hazeline 368 

Heaphy 371 

Hefele 377 

Herford 363 

Herzog 384 

Hitchcock 343 



INDEX TO AUTHORS. 



389 



PAGE. 

Hobart 376 

Hodge 3G9 

Hodgson 368 

Hone 382 

Hook 374 

Howson 374 

Hiibner 376 

Humplirey 381 

Hurst . . . 343,347,359,383 

Jackson, G. A 352 

Jackson, J. T 382 

Jackson, S. M 352 

Jameson (Mrs.) . . 371,373,383 

Jones 358 

Joselan 344 

Keim 372 

Kettlewell 376 

Kingsley 380 

Kitto 385 

Koestlin 376 

Krasinski 365 

Kurtz 347 

Landon 377 

Lacroix 356 

Lange 352, 372 

Lawrence, K 347, 366 

Lawrence, J 370 

Lea 347,357 

Lechler 377 

Lecky 383 

Le Clerg 370 

Lightfoot 352 

Lipsius 352 

Llorente 361 

Lloyd 345,365 

Lockhart 380 

Liibke 371 

Lundy 354 



PAGE. 

Macaulay 361 

Mackay 379 

Maclear 382 

Malan 344 

Mansel 355 

Mant 365 

Marriott 382 

Marsh 375 

Martyn 365 

Maskell 381 

Mason 355 

Mather 367 

Maurice 352 

Mayer 370 

McClellan 352 

McClintock 377,384 

McCracken 374 

McCrie ..... .365,366,376 

Merle, J. H. (D'Aubigne), 

359, 365, 366 

Merivale 382 

Michaud 386 

Mille 380 

Milligan 352 

Milman 347, 352, 357 

Milner 347 

Momsen 354 

Montalembert 383 

Moore 376 

Mosheim 348,353 

Moss 367 

Mozley 376 

Murray 370 

Neal, D 363 

Neale, J. M. . 344, 361, ,381, 382 
Neander . .348, 35.3, 372, 375, 379 
Newman .... .348,355,381 
Northcote 354 



390 



INDEX TO AUTHORS. 



PAGE. 

Norton 352, 371 

Newton 343 

O'Brien 385 

Padrc-Marchi 354 

Parker 354 

Parkman 370 

Pearson 374 

Penn 368 

Perrct 354 

Perry, G. G 363 

Perry, W. 8 369 

Piper 374 

Pitt 384 

Plumptre 373,379 

Poole, G. A 371 

Poole, R. L 364 

Poriarty 375 

Possidius 375 

Pressense, 353, 364, 372, 375, 382 

Priestley 352,353 

Punchard 367 

Pusey 378 

Randall 376 

Ranke 360 

Reade 381 

Reichel 369 

Rein 376 

Renan . . . 352,353,373,374 

Reuss 379 

Robinson 349 

Rogers 376,377 

Rossi 354 

Ruffner 383 

Rule 361 

Rupp 367 

Sanday 352 

Sarpi 378 

Schaff . . 343, 349, 375, 378, 384 



PAGE. 

Schliermacher 376 

Schmid, C. F 373 

Schenkel 373 

Schmucker 368 

Schweinitz 369 

Scott 371 

Seebohm 360 

Seeley, J. R 373 

Seelye, J. H 382 

Seiss 368 

Shedd 379 

Short 363 

Simcox 353 

Simpson 368 

Smiles 364 

Smith, II. B. . . . 343, 379, 385 

Smith, P 349 

Smith, R. T 375 

Smith, T 383 

Smith, W 385 

Smyth, E. C 344 

Socrates 352 

Southey 376 

Soyres 355 

Sozomen 352 

Spalding 360 

Spayth 370 

Spencer 363 

Sprague 367 

Spindler 381 

Stanley, 344, 345, 349, 363, 366, 

375 

Stenhouse (Mrs.) .... 368 
Stephen (Sir) J. . . 361,375,383 

Stephens, W. R. W. ... 376 

Stevens, A 368 

Stubbs 363 

Stewart 367 



INDEX TO AUTHOKS. 



391 



PAGE. 

Strauss 352, 373, r.TO 

Strong 384 

Strype 363 

Summerbell 367 

Sybel 386 

Tafel 376 

Taylor 354 

Theodoret 352 

" Theodorus " 362 

Tholuck 374 

Thomas 371 

Thompson 377 

Thornton 375 

Towiisend 382 

Trcadwell 376 

Tregelles 261 

Trench 357 

Tucker 368 

TuUoch 375,379 

Tyerman 376,377 

Tyrwhitt 372 

Uhlhorn 355,356,373 

Ullmann 357 

Urlin 376 

Van Oosterzee 352 

Venn 377 

Villari 376 

Villemani 375 

Wace ........ 385 



PAGE. 

Waddingtbn 349, 367 

Wadsworth 354 

Wagstaff 368 

Wallace 381 

Ware (II.'?) 370 

Ware, W 381 

Webb 381 

Washbinn 349 

Watson 376 

Weiss, B 373 

Weiss, C 364 

Westcott 352 

Whately 350 

Wheaton 366 

White, H 364 

White, J 350 

White (Bp. W.) 369 

Wiggers 379 

Wilberforce 369 

Wiseman 360,381 

Wood 368 

Woodhouse 357 

Worsfold 358 

Wortabet 345 

Wratislaw 375 

Wycliffe 357 

Wylie ......... 358 

Young, J 373 

Yonge (Miss) 366 



